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更新libclamav库1.0.0版本

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2023-01-14 18:28:39 +08:00
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[book]
authors = ["Nick Fitzgerald"]
multilingual = false
src = "src"
title = "The `wasm-bindgen` Guide"
[build]
build-dir = "book/html"
[output.html]

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# Summary
[Introduction](./introduction.md)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
- [Examples](./examples/index.md)
- [Hello, World!](./examples/hello-world.md)
- [Using `console.log`](./examples/console-log.md)
- [Small wasm files](./examples/add.md)
- [Without a Bundler](./examples/without-a-bundler.md)
- [Converting WebAssembly to JS](./examples/wasm2js.md)
- [Importing functions from JS](./examples/import-js.md)
- [Working with `char`](./examples/char.md)
- [js-sys: WebAssembly in WebAssembly](./examples/wasm-in-wasm.md)
- [web-sys: DOM hello world](./examples/dom.md)
- [web-sys: Closures](./examples/closures.md)
- [web-sys: `performance.now`](./examples/performance.md)
- [web-sys: using `fetch`](./examples/fetch.md)
- [web-sys: `canvas` hello world](./examples/2d-canvas.md)
- [web-sys: `canvas` Julia set](./examples/julia.md)
- [web-sys: WebAudio](./examples/web-audio.md)
- [web-sys: WebGL](./examples/webgl.md)
- [web-sys: WebSockets](./examples/websockets.md)
- [web-sys: WebRTC DataChannel](./examples/webrtc_datachannel.md)
- [web-sys: `requestAnimationFrame`](./examples/request-animation-frame.md)
- [web-sys: A Simple Paint Program](./examples/paint.md)
- [web-sys: WASM in Web Worker](./examples/wasm-in-web-worker.md)
- [Parallel Raytracing](./examples/raytrace.md)
- [WASM Audio Worklet](./examples/wasm-audio-worklet.md)
- [web-sys: A TODO MVC App](./examples/todomvc.md)
- [Reference](./reference/index.md)
- [Deployment](./reference/deployment.md)
- [JS snippets](./reference/js-snippets.md)
- [Passing Rust Closures to JS](./reference/passing-rust-closures-to-js.md)
- [Receiving JS Closures in Rust](./reference/receiving-js-closures-in-rust.md)
- [`Promise`s and `Future`s](./reference/js-promises-and-rust-futures.md)
- [Iterating over JS Values](./reference/iterating-over-js-values.md)
- [Arbitrary Data with Serde](./reference/arbitrary-data-with-serde.md)
- [Accessing Properties of Untyped JS Values](./reference/accessing-properties-of-untyped-js-values.md)
- [Working with Duck-Typed Interfaces](./reference/working-with-duck-typed-interfaces.md)
- [Command Line Interface](./reference/cli.md)
- [Optimizing for Size](./reference/optimize-size.md)
- [Supported Rust Targets](./reference/rust-targets.md)
- [Supported Browsers](./reference/browser-support.md)
- [Support for Weak References](./reference/weak-references.md)
- [Support for Reference Types](./reference/reference-types.md)
- [Supported Types](./reference/types.md)
- [Imported JavaScript Types](./reference/types/imported-js-types.md)
- [Exported Rust Types](./reference/types/exported-rust-types.md)
- [`JsValue`](./reference/types/jsvalue.md)
- [`Box<[JsValue]>`](./reference/types/boxed-jsvalue-slice.md)
- [`*const T` and `*mut T`](./reference/types/pointers.md)
- [Numbers](./reference/types/numbers.md)
- [`bool`](./reference/types/bool.md)
- [`char`](./reference/types/char.md)
- [`str`](./reference/types/str.md)
- [`String`](./reference/types/string.md)
- [Number Slices](./reference/types/number-slices.md)
- [Boxed Number Slices](./reference/types/boxed-number-slices.md)
- [`Result<T, E>`](./reference/types/result.md)
- [`#[wasm_bindgen]` Attributes](./reference/attributes/index.md)
- [On JavaScript Imports](./reference/attributes/on-js-imports/index.md)
- [`catch`](./reference/attributes/on-js-imports/catch.md)
- [`constructor`](./reference/attributes/on-js-imports/constructor.md)
- [`extends`](./reference/attributes/on-js-imports/extends.md)
- [`getter` and `setter`](./reference/attributes/on-js-imports/getter-and-setter.md)
- [`final`](./reference/attributes/on-js-imports/final.md)
- [`indexing_getter`, `indexing_setter`, and `indexing_deleter`](./reference/attributes/on-js-imports/indexing-getter-setter-deleter.md)
- [`js_class = "Blah"`](./reference/attributes/on-js-imports/js_class.md)
- [`js_name`](./reference/attributes/on-js-imports/js_name.md)
- [`js_namespace`](./reference/attributes/on-js-imports/js_namespace.md)
- [`method`](./reference/attributes/on-js-imports/method.md)
- [`module = "blah"`](./reference/attributes/on-js-imports/module.md)
- [`raw_module = "blah"`](./reference/attributes/on-js-imports/raw_module.md)
- [`static_method_of = Blah`](./reference/attributes/on-js-imports/static_method_of.md)
- [`structural`](./reference/attributes/on-js-imports/structural.md)
- [`variadic`](./reference/attributes/on-js-imports/variadic.md)
- [`vendor_prefix`](./reference/attributes/on-js-imports/vendor_prefix.md)
- [On Rust Exports](./reference/attributes/on-rust-exports/index.md)
- [`constructor`](./reference/attributes/on-rust-exports/constructor.md)
- [`js_name = Blah`](./reference/attributes/on-rust-exports/js_name.md)
- [`readonly`](./reference/attributes/on-rust-exports/readonly.md)
- [`skip`](./reference/attributes/on-rust-exports/skip.md)
- [`start`](./reference/attributes/on-rust-exports/start.md)
- [`typescript_custom_section`](./reference/attributes/on-rust-exports/typescript_custom_section.md)
- [`getter` and `setter`](./reference/attributes/on-rust-exports/getter-and-setter.md)
- [`inspectable`](./reference/attributes/on-rust-exports/inspectable.md)
- [`skip_typescript`](./reference/attributes/on-rust-exports/skip_typescript.md)
- [`typescript_type`](./reference/attributes/on-rust-exports/typescript_type.md)
- [`getter_with_clone`](./reference/attributes/on-rust-exports/getter_with_clone.md)
- [`web-sys`](./web-sys/index.md)
- [Using `web-sys`](./web-sys/using-web-sys.md)
- [Cargo Features](./web-sys/cargo-features.md)
- [Function Overloads](./web-sys/function-overloads.md)
- [Type Translations](./web-sys/type-translations.md)
- [Inheritance](./web-sys/inheritance.md)
- [Unstable APIs](./web-sys/unstable-apis.md)
- [Testing with `wasm-bindgen-test`](./wasm-bindgen-test/index.md)
- [Usage](./wasm-bindgen-test/usage.md)
- [Writing Asynchronous Tests](./wasm-bindgen-test/asynchronous-tests.md)
- [Testing in Headless Browsers](./wasm-bindgen-test/browsers.md)
- [Continuous Integration](./wasm-bindgen-test/continuous-integration.md)
- [Contributing to `wasm-bindgen`](./contributing/index.md)
- [Testing](./contributing/testing.md)
- [Internal Design](./contributing/design/index.md)
- [JS Objects in Rust](./contributing/design/js-objects-in-rust.md)
- [Exporting a function to JS](./contributing/design/exporting-rust.md)
- [Exporting a struct to JS](./contributing/design/exporting-rust-struct.md)
- [Importing a function from JS](./contributing/design/importing-js.md)
- [Importing a class from JS](./contributing/design/importing-js-struct.md)
- [Rust Type conversions](./contributing/design/rust-type-conversions.md)
- [Types in `wasm-bindgen`](./contributing/design/describe.md)
- [`js-sys`](./contributing/js-sys/index.md)
- [Testing](./contributing/js-sys/testing.md)
- [Adding More APIs](./contributing/js-sys/adding-more-apis.md)
- [`web-sys`](./contributing/web-sys/index.md)
- [Overview](./contributing/web-sys/overview.md)
- [Testing](./contributing/web-sys/testing.md)
- [Logging](./contributing/web-sys/logging.md)
- [Supporting More Web APIs](./contributing/web-sys/supporting-more-web-apis.md)
- [Publishing](./contributing/publishing.md)
- [Team](./contributing/team.md)

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/*
Cross-Origin-Opener-Policy: same-origin
Cross-Origin-Embedder-Policy: require-corp

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# Communicating types to `wasm-bindgen`
The last aspect to talk about when converting Rust/JS types amongst one another
is how this information is actually communicated. The `#[wasm_bindgen]` macro is
running over the syntactical (unresolved) structure of the Rust code and is then
responsible for generating information that `wasm-bindgen` the CLI tool later
reads.
To accomplish this a slightly unconventional approach is taken. Static
information about the structure of the Rust code is serialized via JSON
(currently) to a custom section of the wasm executable. Other information, like
what the types actually are, unfortunately isn't known until later in the
compiler due to things like associated type projections and typedefs. It also
turns out that we want to convey "rich" types like `FnMut(String, Foo,
&JsValue)` to the `wasm-bindgen` CLI, and handling all this is pretty tricky!
To solve this issue the `#[wasm_bindgen]` macro generates **executable
functions** which "describe the type signature of an import or export". These
executable functions are what the `WasmDescribe` trait is all about:
```rust
pub trait WasmDescribe {
fn describe();
}
```
While deceptively simple this trait is actually quite important. When you write,
an export like this:
```rust
#[wasm_bindgen]
fn greet(a: &str) {
// ...
}
```
In addition to the shims we talked about above which JS generates the macro
*also* generates something like:
```
#[no_mangle]
pub extern "C" fn __wbindgen_describe_greet() {
<dyn Fn(&str)>::describe();
}
```
Or in other words it generates invocations of `describe` functions. In doing so
the `__wbindgen_describe_greet` shim is a programmatic description of the type
layouts of an import/export. These are then executed when `wasm-bindgen` runs!
These executions rely on an import called `__wbindgen_describe` which passes one
`u32` to the host, and when called multiple times gives a `Vec<u32>`
effectively. This `Vec<u32>` can then be reparsed into an `enum Descriptor`
which fully describes a type.
All in all this is a bit roundabout but shouldn't have any impact on the
generated code or runtime at all. All these descriptor functions are pruned from
the emitted wasm file.

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# Exporting a struct to JS
So far we've covered JS objects, importing functions, and exporting functions.
This has given us quite a rich base to build on so far, and that's great! We
sometimes, though, want to go even further and define a JS `class` in Rust. Or
in other words, we want to expose an object with methods from Rust to JS rather
than just importing/exporting free functions.
The `#[wasm_bindgen]` attribute can annotate both a `struct` and `impl` blocks
to allow:
```rust
#[wasm_bindgen]
pub struct Foo {
internal: i32,
}
#[wasm_bindgen]
impl Foo {
#[wasm_bindgen(constructor)]
pub fn new(val: i32) -> Foo {
Foo { internal: val }
}
pub fn get(&self) -> i32 {
self.internal
}
pub fn set(&mut self, val: i32) {
self.internal = val;
}
}
```
This is a typical Rust `struct` definition for a type with a constructor and a
few methods. Annotating the struct with `#[wasm_bindgen]` means that we'll
generate necessary trait impls to convert this type to/from the JS boundary. The
annotated `impl` block here means that the functions inside will also be made
available to JS through generated shims. If we take a look at the generated JS
code for this we'll see:
```js
import * as wasm from './js_hello_world_bg';
export class Foo {
static __construct(ptr) {
return new Foo(ptr);
}
constructor(ptr) {
this.ptr = ptr;
}
free() {
const ptr = this.ptr;
this.ptr = 0;
wasm.__wbg_foo_free(ptr);
}
static new(arg0) {
const ret = wasm.foo_new(arg0);
return Foo.__construct(ret)
}
get() {
const ret = wasm.foo_get(this.ptr);
return ret;
}
set(arg0) {
const ret = wasm.foo_set(this.ptr, arg0);
return ret;
}
}
```
That's actually not much! We can see here though how we've translated from Rust
to JS:
* Associated functions in Rust (those without `self`) turn into `static`
functions in JS.
* Methods in Rust turn into methods in wasm.
* Manual memory management is exposed in JS as well. The `free` function is
required to be invoked to deallocate resources on the Rust side of things.
To be able to use `new Foo()`, you'd need to annotate `new` as `#[wasm_bindgen(constructor)]`.
One important aspect to note here, though, is that once `free` is called the JS
object is "neutered" in that its internal pointer is nulled out. This means that
future usage of this object should trigger a panic in Rust.
The real trickery with these bindings ends up happening in Rust, however, so
let's take a look at that.
```rust
// original input to `#[wasm_bindgen]` omitted ...
#[export_name = "foo_new"]
pub extern "C" fn __wasm_bindgen_generated_Foo_new(arg0: i32) -> u32
let ret = Foo::new(arg0);
Box::into_raw(Box::new(WasmRefCell::new(ret))) as u32
}
#[export_name = "foo_get"]
pub extern "C" fn __wasm_bindgen_generated_Foo_get(me: u32) -> i32 {
let me = me as *mut WasmRefCell<Foo>;
wasm_bindgen::__rt::assert_not_null(me);
let me = unsafe { &*me };
return me.borrow().get();
}
#[export_name = "foo_set"]
pub extern "C" fn __wasm_bindgen_generated_Foo_set(me: u32, arg1: i32) {
let me = me as *mut WasmRefCell<Foo>;
wasm_bindgen::__rt::assert_not_null(me);
let me = unsafe { &*me };
me.borrow_mut().set(arg1);
}
#[no_mangle]
pub unsafe extern "C" fn __wbindgen_foo_free(me: u32) {
let me = me as *mut WasmRefCell<Foo>;
wasm_bindgen::__rt::assert_not_null(me);
(*me).borrow_mut(); // ensure no active borrows
drop(Box::from_raw(me));
}
```
As with before this is cleaned up from the actual output but it's the same idea
as to what's going on! Here we can see a shim for each function as well as a
shim for deallocating an instance of `Foo`. Recall that the only valid wasm
types today are numbers, so we're required to shoehorn all of `Foo` into a
`u32`, which is currently done via `Box` (like `std::unique_ptr` in C++).
Note, though, that there's an extra layer here, `WasmRefCell`. This type is the
same as [`RefCell`] and can be mostly glossed over.
The purpose for this type, if you're interested though, is to uphold Rust's
guarantees about aliasing in a world where aliasing is rampant (JS).
Specifically the `&Foo` type means that there can be as much aliasing as you'd
like, but crucially `&mut Foo` means that it is the sole pointer to the data
(no other `&Foo` to the same instance exists). The [`RefCell`] type in libstd
is a way of dynamically enforcing this at runtime (as opposed to compile time
where it usually happens). Baking in `WasmRefCell` is the same idea here,
adding runtime checks for aliasing which are typically happening at compile
time. This is currently a Rust-specific feature which isn't actually in the
`wasm-bindgen` tool itself, it's just in the Rust-generated code (aka the
`#[wasm_bindgen]` attribute).
[`RefCell`]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/cell/struct.RefCell.html

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# Exporting a function to JS
Alright now that we've got a good grasp on JS objects and how they're working,
let's take a look at another feature of `wasm-bindgen`: exporting functionality
with types that are richer than just numbers.
The basic idea around exporting functionality with more flavorful types is that
the wasm exports won't actually be called directly. Instead the generated
`foo.js` module will have shims for all exported functions in the wasm module.
The most interesting conversion here happens with strings so let's take a look
at that.
```rust
#[wasm_bindgen]
pub fn greet(a: &str) -> String {
format!("Hello, {}!", a)
}
```
Here we'd like to define an ES module that looks like
```ts
// foo.d.ts
export function greet(a: string): string;
```
To see what's going on, let's take a look at the generated shim
```js
import * as wasm from './foo_bg';
function passStringToWasm(arg) {
const buf = new TextEncoder('utf-8').encode(arg);
const len = buf.length;
const ptr = wasm.__wbindgen_malloc(len);
let array = new Uint8Array(wasm.memory.buffer);
array.set(buf, ptr);
return [ptr, len];
}
function getStringFromWasm(ptr, len) {
const mem = new Uint8Array(wasm.memory.buffer);
const slice = mem.slice(ptr, ptr + len);
const ret = new TextDecoder('utf-8').decode(slice);
return ret;
}
export function greet(arg0) {
const [ptr0, len0] = passStringToWasm(arg0);
try {
const ret = wasm.greet(ptr0, len0);
const ptr = wasm.__wbindgen_boxed_str_ptr(ret);
const len = wasm.__wbindgen_boxed_str_len(ret);
const realRet = getStringFromWasm(ptr, len);
wasm.__wbindgen_boxed_str_free(ret);
return realRet;
} finally {
wasm.__wbindgen_free(ptr0, len0);
}
}
```
Phew, that's quite a lot! We can sort of see though if we look closely what's
happening:
* Strings are passed to wasm via two arguments, a pointer and a length. Right
now we have to copy the string onto the wasm heap which means we'll be using
`TextEncoder` to actually do the encoding. Once this is done we use an
internal function in `wasm-bindgen` to allocate space for the string to go,
and then we'll pass that ptr/length to wasm later on.
* Returning strings from wasm is a little tricky as we need to return a ptr/len
pair, but wasm currently only supports one return value (multiple return values
[is being standardized](https://github.com/WebAssembly/design/issues/1146)).
To work around this in the meantime, we're actually returning a pointer to a
ptr/len pair, and then using functions to access the various fields.
* Some cleanup ends up happening in wasm. The `__wbindgen_boxed_str_free`
function is used to free the return value of `greet` after it's been decoded
onto the JS heap (using `TextDecoder`). The `__wbindgen_free` is then used to
free the space we allocated to pass the string argument once the function call
is done.
Next let's take a look at the Rust side of things as well. Here we'll be looking
at a mostly abbreviated and/or "simplified" in the sense of this is what it
compiles down to:
```rust
pub extern "C" fn greet(a: &str) -> String {
format!("Hello, {}!", a)
}
#[export_name = "greet"]
pub extern "C" fn __wasm_bindgen_generated_greet(
arg0_ptr: *const u8,
arg0_len: usize,
) -> *mut String {
let arg0 = unsafe {
let slice = ::std::slice::from_raw_parts(arg0_ptr, arg0_len);
::std::str::from_utf8_unchecked(slice)
};
let _ret = greet(arg0);
Box::into_raw(Box::new(_ret))
}
```
Here we can see again that our `greet` function is unmodified and has a wrapper
to call it. This wrapper will take the ptr/len argument and convert it to a
string slice, while the return value is boxed up into just a pointer and is
then returned up to was for reading via the `__wbindgen_boxed_str_*` functions.
So in general exporting a function involves a shim both in JS and in Rust with
each side translating to or from wasm arguments to the native types of each
language. The `wasm-bindgen` tool manages hooking up all these shims while the
`#[wasm_bindgen]` macro takes care of the Rust shim as well.
Most arguments have a relatively clear way to convert them, bit if you've got
any questions just let me know!

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# Importing a class from JS
Just like with functions after we've started exporting we'll also want to
import! Now that we've exported a `class` to JS we'll want to also be able to
import classes in Rust as well to invoke methods and such. Since JS classes are
in general just JS objects the bindings here will look pretty similar to the JS
object bindings describe above.
As usual though, let's dive into an example!
```rust
#[wasm_bindgen(module = "./bar")]
extern "C" {
type Bar;
#[wasm_bindgen(constructor)]
fn new(arg: i32) -> Bar;
#[wasm_bindgen(js_namespace = Bar)]
fn another_function() -> i32;
#[wasm_bindgen(method)]
fn get(this: &Bar) -> i32;
#[wasm_bindgen(method)]
fn set(this: &Bar, val: i32);
#[wasm_bindgen(method, getter)]
fn property(this: &Bar) -> i32;
#[wasm_bindgen(method, setter)]
fn set_property(this: &Bar, val: i32);
}
fn run() {
let bar = Bar::new(Bar::another_function());
let x = bar.get();
bar.set(x + 3);
bar.set_property(bar.property() + 6);
}
```
Unlike our previous imports, this one's a bit more chatty! Remember that one of
the goals of `wasm-bindgen` is to use native Rust syntax wherever possible, so
this is mostly intended to use the `#[wasm_bindgen]` attribute to interpret
what's written down in Rust. Now there's a few attribute annotations here, so
let's go through one-by-one:
* `#[wasm_bindgen(module = "./bar")]` - seen before with imports this is declare
where all the subsequent functionality is imported from. For example the `Bar`
type is going to be imported from the `./bar` module.
* `type Bar` - this is a declaration of JS class as a new type in Rust. This
means that a new type `Bar` is generated which is "opaque" but is represented
as internally containing a `JsValue`. We'll see more on this later.
* `#[wasm_bindgen(constructor)]` - this indicates that the binding's name isn't
actually used in JS but rather translates to `new Bar()`. The return value of
this function must be a bare type, like `Bar`.
* `#[wasm_bindgen(js_namespace = Bar)]` - this attribute indicates that the
function declaration is namespaced through the `Bar` class in JS.
* `#[wasm_bindgen(static_method_of = SomeJsClass)]` - this attribute is similar
to `js_namespace`, but instead of producing a free function, produces a static
method of `SomeJsClass`.
* `#[wasm_bindgen(method)]` - and finally, this attribute indicates that a
method call is going to happen. The first argument must be a JS struct, like
`Bar`, and the call in JS looks like `Bar.prototype.set.call(...)`.
With all that in mind, let's take a look at the JS generated.
```js
import * as wasm from './foo_bg';
import { Bar } from './bar';
// other support functions omitted...
export function __wbg_s_Bar_new() {
return addHeapObject(new Bar());
}
const another_function_shim = Bar.another_function;
export function __wbg_s_Bar_another_function() {
return another_function_shim();
}
const get_shim = Bar.prototype.get;
export function __wbg_s_Bar_get(ptr) {
return shim.call(getObject(ptr));
}
const set_shim = Bar.prototype.set;
export function __wbg_s_Bar_set(ptr, arg0) {
set_shim.call(getObject(ptr), arg0)
}
const property_shim = Object.getOwnPropertyDescriptor(Bar.prototype, 'property').get;
export function __wbg_s_Bar_property(ptr) {
return property_shim.call(getObject(ptr));
}
const set_property_shim = Object.getOwnPropertyDescriptor(Bar.prototype, 'property').set;
export function __wbg_s_Bar_set_property(ptr, arg0) {
set_property_shim.call(getObject(ptr), arg0)
}
```
Like when importing functions from JS we can see a bunch of shims are generated
for all the relevant functions. The `new` static function has the
`#[wasm_bindgen(constructor)]` attribute which means that instead of any
particular method it should actually invoke the `new` constructor instead (as
we see here). The static function `another_function`, however, is dispatched as
`Bar.another_function`.
The `get` and `set` functions are methods so they go through `Bar.prototype`,
and otherwise their first argument is implicitly the JS object itself which is
loaded through `getObject` like we saw earlier.
Some real meat starts to show up though on the Rust side of things, so let's
take a look:
```rust
pub struct Bar {
obj: JsValue,
}
impl Bar {
fn new() -> Bar {
extern "C" {
fn __wbg_s_Bar_new() -> u32;
}
unsafe {
let ret = __wbg_s_Bar_new();
Bar { obj: JsValue::__from_idx(ret) }
}
}
fn another_function() -> i32 {
extern "C" {
fn __wbg_s_Bar_another_function() -> i32;
}
unsafe {
__wbg_s_Bar_another_function()
}
}
fn get(&self) -> i32 {
extern "C" {
fn __wbg_s_Bar_get(ptr: u32) -> i32;
}
unsafe {
let ptr = self.obj.__get_idx();
let ret = __wbg_s_Bar_get(ptr);
return ret
}
}
fn set(&self, val: i32) {
extern "C" {
fn __wbg_s_Bar_set(ptr: u32, val: i32);
}
unsafe {
let ptr = self.obj.__get_idx();
__wbg_s_Bar_set(ptr, val);
}
}
fn property(&self) -> i32 {
extern "C" {
fn __wbg_s_Bar_property(ptr: u32) -> i32;
}
unsafe {
let ptr = self.obj.__get_idx();
let ret = __wbg_s_Bar_property(ptr);
return ret
}
}
fn set_property(&self, val: i32) {
extern "C" {
fn __wbg_s_Bar_set_property(ptr: u32, val: i32);
}
unsafe {
let ptr = self.obj.__get_idx();
__wbg_s_Bar_set_property(ptr, val);
}
}
}
impl WasmBoundary for Bar {
// ...
}
impl ToRefWasmBoundary for Bar {
// ...
}
```
In Rust we're seeing that a new type, `Bar`, is generated for this import of a
class. The type `Bar` internally contains a `JsValue` as an instance of `Bar`
is meant to represent a JS object stored in our module's stack/slab. This then
works mostly the same way that we saw JS objects work in the beginning.
When calling `Bar::new` we'll get an index back which is wrapped up in `Bar`
(which is itself just a `u32` in memory when stripped down). Each function then
passes the index as the first argument and otherwise forwards everything along
in Rust.

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# Importing a function from JS
Now that we've exported some rich functionality to JS it's also time to import
some! The goal here is to basically implement JS `import` statements in Rust,
with fancy types and all.
First up, let's say we invert the function above and instead want to generate
greetings in JS but call it from Rust. We might have, for example:
```rust
#[wasm_bindgen(module = "./greet")]
extern "C" {
fn greet(a: &str) -> String;
}
fn other_code() {
let greeting = greet("foo");
// ...
}
```
The basic idea of imports is the same as exports in that we'll have shims in
both JS and Rust doing the necessary translation. Let's first see the JS shim in
action:
```js
import * as wasm from './foo_bg';
import { greet } from './greet';
// ...
export function __wbg_f_greet(ptr0, len0, wasmretptr) {
const [retptr, retlen] = passStringToWasm(greet(getStringFromWasm(ptr0, len0)));
(new Uint32Array(wasm.memory.buffer))[wasmretptr / 4] = retlen;
return retptr;
}
```
The `getStringFromWasm` and `passStringToWasm` are the same as we saw before,
and like with `__wbindgen_object_drop_ref` far above we've got this weird export
from our module now! The `__wbg_f_greet` function is what's generated by
`wasm-bindgen` to actually get imported in the `foo.wasm` module.
The generated `foo.js` we see imports from the `./greet` module with the `greet`
name (was the function import in Rust said) and then the `__wbg_f_greet`
function is shimming that import.
There's some tricky ABI business going on here so let's take a look at the
generated Rust as well. Like before this is simplified from what's actually
generated.
```rust
extern "C" fn greet(a: &str) -> String {
extern "C" {
fn __wbg_f_greet(a_ptr: *const u8, a_len: usize, ret_len: *mut usize) -> *mut u8;
}
unsafe {
let a_ptr = a.as_ptr();
let a_len = a.len();
let mut __ret_strlen = 0;
let mut __ret_strlen_ptr = &mut __ret_strlen as *mut usize;
let _ret = __wbg_f_greet(a_ptr, a_len, __ret_strlen_ptr);
String::from_utf8_unchecked(
Vec::from_raw_parts(_ret, __ret_strlen, __ret_strlen)
)
}
}
```
Here we can see that the `greet` function was generated but it's largely just a
shim around the `__wbg_f_greet` function that we're calling. The ptr/len pair
for the argument is passed as two arguments and for the return value we're
receiving one value (the length) indirectly while directly receiving the
returned pointer.

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# Design of `wasm-bindgen`
This section is intended to be a deep-dive into how `wasm-bindgen` internally
works today, specifically for Rust. If you're reading this far in the future it
may no longer be up to date, but feel free to open an issue and we can try to
answer questions and/or update this!
## Foundation: ES Modules
The first thing to know about `wasm-bindgen` is that it's fundamentally built on
the idea of ES Modules. In other words this tool takes an opinionated stance
that wasm files *should be viewed as ES modules*. This means that you can
`import` from a wasm file, use its `export`-ed functionality, etc, from normal
JS files.
Now unfortunately at the time of this writing the interface of wasm interop
isn't very rich. Wasm modules can only call functions or export functions that
deal exclusively with `i32`, `i64`, `f32`, and `f64`. Bummer!
That's where this project comes in. The goal of `wasm-bindgen` is to enhance the
"ABI" of wasm modules with richer types like classes, JS objects, Rust structs,
strings, etc. Keep in mind, though, that everything is based on ES Modules! This
means that the compiler is actually producing a "broken" wasm file of sorts. The
wasm file emitted by rustc, for example, does not have the interface we would
like to have. Instead it requires the `wasm-bindgen` tool to postprocess the
file, generating a `foo.js` and `foo_bg.wasm` file. The `foo.js` file is the
desired interface expressed in JS (classes, types, strings, etc) and the
`foo_bg.wasm` module is simply used as an implementation detail (it was
lightly modified from the original `foo.wasm` file).
As more features are stabilized in WebAssembly over time (like host bindings)
the JS file is expected to get smaller and smaller. It's unlikely to ever
disappear, but `wasm-bindgen` is designed to follow the WebAssembly spec and
proposals closely to optimize JS/Rust as much as possible.
## Foundation #2: Unintrusive in Rust
On the more Rust-y side of things the `wasm-bindgen` crate is designed to
ideally have as minimal impact on a Rust crate as possible. Ideally a few
`#[wasm_bindgen]` attributes are annotated in key locations and otherwise you're
off to the races. The attribute strives to both not invent new syntax and work
with existing idioms today.
For example a library might exposed a function in normal Rust that looks like:
```rust
pub fn greet(name: &str) -> String {
// ...
}
```
And with `#[wasm_bindgen]` all you need to do in exporting it to JS is:
```rust
#[wasm_bindgen]
pub fn greet(name: &str) -> String {
// ...
}
```
Additionally the design here with minimal intervention in Rust should allow us
to easily take advantage of the upcoming [host bindings][host] proposal. Ideally
you'd simply upgrade `wasm-bindgen`-the-crate as well as your toolchain and
you're immediately getting raw access to host bindings! (this is still a bit of
a ways off though...)
[host]: https://github.com/WebAssembly/host-bindings

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# Polyfill for "JS objects in wasm"
One of the main goals of `wasm-bindgen` is to allow working with and passing
around JS objects in wasm, but that's not allowed today! While indeed true,
that's where the polyfill comes in.
The question here is how we shoehorn JS objects into a `u32` for wasm to use.
The current strategy for this approach is to maintain a module-local variable
in the generated `foo.js` file: a `heap`.
### Temporary JS objects on the "stack"
The first slots in the `heap` in `foo.js` are considered a stack. This stack,
like typical program execution stacks, grows down. JS objects are pushed on the
bottom of the stack, and their index in the stack is the identifier that's passed
to wasm. A stack pointer is maintained to figure out where the next item is
pushed.
JS objects are then only removed from the bottom of the stack as well. Removal
is simply storing null then incrementing a counter. Because of the "stack-y"
nature of this scheme it only works for when wasm doesn't hold onto a JS object
(aka it only gets a "reference" in Rust parlance).
Let's take a look at an example.
```rust
// foo.rs
#[wasm_bindgen]
pub fn foo(a: &JsValue) {
// ...
}
```
Here we're using the special `JsValue` type from the `wasm-bindgen` library
itself. Our exported function, `foo`, takes a *reference* to an object. This
notably means that it can't persist the object past the lifetime of this
function call.
Now what we actually want to generate is a JS module that looks like (in
TypeScript parlance)
```ts
// foo.d.ts
export function foo(a: any);
```
and what we actually generate looks something like:
```js
// foo.js
import * as wasm from './foo_bg';
const heap = new Array(32);
heap.push(undefined, null, true, false);
let stack_pointer = 32;
function addBorrowedObject(obj) {
stack_pointer -= 1;
heap[stack_pointer] = obj;
return stack_pointer;
}
export function foo(arg0) {
const idx0 = addBorrowedObject(arg0);
try {
wasm.foo(idx0);
} finally {
heap[stack_pointer++] = undefined;
}
}
```
Here we can see a few notable points of action:
* The wasm file was renamed to `foo_bg.wasm`, and we can see how the JS module
generated here is importing from the wasm file.
* Next we can see our `heap` module variable which is to store all JS values
reference-able from wasm.
* Our exported function `foo`, takes an arbitrary argument, `arg0`, which is
converted to an index with the `addBorrowedObject` object function. The index
is then passed to wasm so wasm can operate with it.
* Finally, we have a `finally` which frees the stack slot as it's no longer
used, popping the value that was pushed at the start of the function.
It's also helpful to dig into the Rust side of things to see what's going on
there! Let's take a look at the code that `#[wasm_bindgen]` generates in Rust:
```rust
// what the user wrote
pub fn foo(a: &JsValue) {
// ...
}
#[export_name = "foo"]
pub extern "C" fn __wasm_bindgen_generated_foo(arg0: u32) {
let arg0 = unsafe {
ManuallyDrop::new(JsValue::__from_idx(arg0))
};
let arg0 = &*arg0;
foo(arg0);
}
```
And as with the JS, the notable points here are:
* The original function, `foo`, is unmodified in the output
* A generated function here (with a unique name) is the one that's actually
exported from the wasm module
* Our generated function takes an integer argument (our index) and then wraps it
in a `JsValue`. There's some trickery here that's not worth going into just
yet, but we'll see in a bit what's happening under the hood.
### Long-lived JS objects
The above strategy is useful when JS objects are only temporarily used in Rust,
for example only during one function call. Sometimes, though, objects may have a
dynamic lifetime or otherwise need to be stored on Rust's heap. To cope with
this there's a second half of management of JS objects, naturally corresponding
to the other side of the JS `heap` array.
JS Objects passed to wasm that are not references are assumed to have a dynamic
lifetime inside of the wasm module. As a result the strict push/pop of the stack
won't work and we need more permanent storage for the JS objects. To cope with
this we build our own "slab allocator" of sorts.
A picture (or code) is worth a thousand words so let's show what happens with an
example.
```rust
// foo.rs
#[wasm_bindgen]
pub fn foo(a: JsValue) {
// ...
}
```
Note that the `&` is missing in front of the `JsValue` we had before, and in
Rust parlance this means it's taking ownership of the JS value. The exported ES
module interface is the same as before, but the ownership mechanics are slightly
different. Let's see the generated JS's slab in action:
```js
import * as wasm from './foo_bg'; // imports from wasm file
const heap = new Array(32);
heap.push(undefined, null, true, false);
let heap_next = 36;
function addHeapObject(obj) {
if (heap_next === heap.length)
heap.push(heap.length + 1);
const idx = heap_next;
heap_next = heap[idx];
heap[idx] = obj;
return idx;
}
export function foo(arg0) {
const idx0 = addHeapObject(arg0);
wasm.foo(idx0);
}
export function __wbindgen_object_drop_ref(idx) {
heap[idx ] = heap_next;
heap_next = idx;
}
```
Unlike before we're now calling `addHeapObject` on the argument to `foo` rather
than `addBorrowedObject`. This function will use `heap` and `heap_next` as a
slab allocator to acquire a slot to store the object, placing a structure there
once it's found. Note that this is going on the right-half of the array, unlike
the stack which resides on the left half. This discipline mirrors the stack/heap
in normal programs, roughly.
Another curious aspect of this generated module is the
`__wbindgen_object_drop_ref` function. This is one that's actually imported to
wasm rather than used in this module! This function is used to signal the end of
the lifetime of a `JsValue` in Rust, or in other words when it goes out of
scope. Otherwise though this function is largely just a general "slab free"
implementation.
And finally, let's take a look at the Rust generated again too:
```rust
// what the user wrote
pub fn foo(a: JsValue) {
// ...
}
#[export_name = "foo"]
pub extern "C" fn __wasm_bindgen_generated_foo(arg0: u32) {
let arg0 = unsafe {
JsValue::__from_idx(arg0)
};
foo(arg0);
}
```
Ah that looks much more familiar! Not much interesting is happening here, so
let's move on to...
### Anatomy of `JsValue`
Currently the `JsValue` struct is actually quite simple in Rust, it's:
```rust
pub struct JsValue {
idx: u32,
}
// "private" constructors
impl Drop for JsValue {
fn drop(&mut self) {
unsafe {
__wbindgen_object_drop_ref(self.idx);
}
}
}
```
Or in other words it's a newtype wrapper around a `u32`, the index that we're
passed from wasm. The destructor here is where the `__wbindgen_object_drop_ref`
function is called to relinquish our reference count of the JS object, freeing
up our slot in the `slab` that we saw above.
If you'll recall as well, when we took `&JsValue` above we generated a wrapper
of `ManuallyDrop` around the local binding, and that's because we wanted to
avoid invoking this destructor when the object comes from the stack.
### Working with `heap` in reality
The above explanations are pretty close to what happens today, but in reality
there's a few differences especially around handling constant values like
`undefined`, `null`, etc. Be sure to check out the actual generated JS and the
generation code for the full details!

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# Rust Type conversions
Previously we've been seeing mostly abridged versions of type conversions when
values enter Rust. Here we'll go into some more depth about how this is
implemented. There are two categories of traits for converting values, traits
for converting values from Rust to JS and traits for the other way around.
## From Rust to JS
First up let's take a look at going from Rust to JS:
```rust
pub trait IntoWasmAbi: WasmDescribe {
type Abi: WasmAbi;
fn into_abi(self) -> Self::Abi;
}
```
And that's it! This is actually the only trait needed currently for translating
a Rust value to a JS one. There's a few points here:
* We'll get to `WasmDescribe` later in this section.
* The associated type `Abi` is what will actually be generated as an argument /
return type for the `extern "C"` functions used to declare wasm imports/exports.
The bound `WasmAbi` is implemented for primitive types like `u32` and `f64`,
which can be represented directly as WebAssembly values, as well of a couple
of `#[repr(C)]` types like `WasmSlice`:
```rust
#[repr(C)]
pub struct WasmSlice {
pub ptr: u32,
pub len: u32,
}
```
This struct, which is how things like strings are represented in FFI, isn't
a WebAssembly primitive type and so isn't mapped directly to a WebAssembly
parameter / return value; instead, the C ABI flattens it out into two arguments
or stores it on the stack.
* And finally we have the `into_abi` function, returning the `Abi` associated
type which will be actually passed to JS.
This trait is implemented for all types that can be converted to JS and is
unconditionally used during codegen. For example you'll often see `IntoWasmAbi
for Foo` but also `IntoWasmAbi for &'a Foo`.
The `IntoWasmAbi` trait is used in two locations. First it's used to convert
return values of Rust exported functions to JS. Second it's used to convert the
Rust arguments of JS functions imported to Rust.
## From JS to Rust
Unfortunately the opposite direction from above, going from JS to Rust, is a bit
more complicated. Here we've got three traits:
```rust
pub trait FromWasmAbi: WasmDescribe {
type Abi: WasmAbi;
unsafe fn from_abi(js: Self::Abi) -> Self;
}
pub trait RefFromWasmAbi: WasmDescribe {
type Abi: WasmAbi;
type Anchor: Deref<Target=Self>;
unsafe fn ref_from_abi(js: Self::Abi) -> Self::Anchor;
}
pub trait RefMutFromWasmAbi: WasmDescribe {
type Abi: WasmAbi;
type Anchor: DerefMut<Target=Self>;
unsafe fn ref_mut_from_abi(js: Self::Abi) -> Self::Anchor;
}
```
The `FromWasmAbi` is relatively straightforward, basically the opposite of
`IntoWasmAbi`. It takes the ABI argument (typically the same as
`IntoWasmAbi::Abi`) to produce an instance of
`Self`. This trait is implemented primarily for types that *don't* have internal
lifetimes or are references.
The latter two traits here are mostly the same, and are intended for generating
references (both shared and mutable references). They look almost the same as
`FromWasmAbi` except that they return an `Anchor` type which implements a
`Deref` trait rather than `Self`.
The `Ref*` traits allow having arguments in functions that are references rather
than bare types, for example `&str`, `&JsValue`, or `&[u8]`. The `Anchor` here
is required to ensure that the lifetimes don't persist beyond one function call
and remain anonymous.
The `From*` family of traits are used for converting the Rust arguments in Rust
exported functions to JS. They are also used for the return value in JS
functions imported into Rust.

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# Contributing to `wasm-bindgen`
This section contains instructions on how to get this project up and running for
development. You may want to browse the [unpublished guide documentation] for
`wasm-bindgen` as well as it may have more up-to-date information.
[unpublished documentation]: https://rustwasm.github.io/wasm-bindgen/
## Prerequisites
1. Rust. [Install Rust]. Once Rust is installed, run
```shell
rustup target add wasm32-unknown-unknown
```
[install Rust]: https://www.rust-lang.org/en-US/install.html
2. The tests for this project use Node. Make sure you have node >= 10 installed,
as that is when WebAssembly support was introduced. [Install Node].
[Install Node]: https://nodejs.org/en/
## Code Formatting
Although formatting rules are not mandatory, it is encouraged to run `cargo run` (`rustfmt`) with its default rules within a PR to maintain a more organized code base. If necessary, a PR with a single commit that formats the entire project is also welcome.

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# Adding Support for More JavaScript Global APIs
As of 2018-09-24 we've [added all APIs][issue] in the current ECMAScript
standard (yay!). To that end you'll hopefully not find a missing API, but if you
do please feel free to file an issue!
We currently add new APIs added to ECMAScript that are in [TC39 stage 4][tc39]
to this crate. If there's a new API in stage 4, feel free to file an issue as
well!
### Instructions for adding an API
* [ ] Find the `wasm-bindgen` issue for the API you'd like to add. If this
doesn't exist, feel free to open one! Afterwards be sure to comment on the
issue to avoid duplication of work.
* [ ] Open the [MDN
page](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Global_Objects)
for the relevant JS API.
* [ ] Open `crates/js-sys/src/lib.rs` in your editor; this is the file where we
are implementing the bindings.
* [ ] Follow the instructions in the top of `crates/js-sys/src/lib.rs` about how
to add new bindings.
* [ ] Add a test for the new binding to `crates/js-sys/tests/wasm/MyType.rs`
* [ ] Run the [JS global API bindings tests][test]
* [ ] Send a pull request!
[issue]: https://github.com/rustwasm/wasm-bindgen/issues/275
[tc39]: https://tc39.github.io/process-document/
[test]: testing.html

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# `js-sys`
The [`js-sys` crate][js-sys] provides raw bindings to all the global APIs
guaranteed to exist in every JavaScript environment by the ECMAScript standard,
and its source lives at [`wasm-bindgen/crates/js-sys`][src]. With the `js-sys`
crate, we can work with `Object`s, `Array`s, `Function`s, `Map`s, `Set`s,
etc... without writing the `#[wasm_bindgen]` imports by hand.
Documentation for the published version of this crate is available on
[docs.rs][docsrs] but you can also check out the [master branch
documentation][masterdoc] for the crate.
[docsrs]: https://docs.rs/js-sys
[masterdoc]: https://rustwasm.github.io/wasm-bindgen/api/js_sys/
[src]: https://github.com/rustwasm/wasm-bindgen/tree/master/crates/js-sys
For example, we can invoke JavaScript [`Function`][mdn-function] callbacks and
time how long they take to execute with [`Date.now()`][mdn-date-now], and we
don't need to write any JS imports ourselves:
```rust
use wasm_bindgen::prelude::*;
#[wasm_bindgen]
pub fn timed(callback: &js_sys::Function) -> f64 {
let then = js_sys::Date::now();
callback.apply(JsValue::null(), &js_sys::Array::new()).unwrap();
let now = js_sys::Date::now();
now - then
}
```
The `js-sys` crate doesn't contain bindings to any Web APIs like
[`document.querySelectorAll`][mdn-qsa]. These will be part of the
[`web-sys`][web-sys] crate.
[MDN]: https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Global_Objects
[js-sys]: https://crates.io/crates/js-sys
[issue]: https://github.com/rustwasm/wasm-bindgen/issues/275
[mdn-function]: https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Global_Objects/Function
[mdn-qsa]: https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/Document/querySelectorAll
[web-sys]: https://crates.io/crates/web-sys
[web-sys-contributing]: https://rustwasm.github.io/wasm-bindgen/web-sys.html
[web-sys-issues]: https://github.com/rustwasm/wasm-bindgen/issues?q=is%3Aissue+is%3Aopen+label%3Aweb-sys
[mdn-date-now]: https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Global_Objects/Date/now

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# Testing
You can test the `js-sys` crate by running `cargo test --target
wasm32-unknown-unknown` within the `crates/js-sys` directory in the
`wasm-bindgen` repository:
```sh
cd wasm-bindgen/crates/js-sys
cargo test --target wasm32-unknown-unknown
```
These tests are largely executed in Node.js right now via the
[`wasm-bindgen-test` framework](../../wasm-bindgen-test/index.html)

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# Publishing New `wasm-bindgen` Releases
1. <input type="checkbox"/> Compile the `publish.rs` script:
```
rustc publish.rs
```
2. <input type="checkbox"/> Bump every crate's minor version:
```
# Make sure you are in the root of the wasm-bindgen repo!
./publish bump
```
3. <input type="checkbox"/> Send a pull request for the version bump.
4. <input type="checkbox"/> After the pull request's CI is green and it has been
merged, publish to cargo:
```
# Make sure you are in the root of the wasm-bindgen repo!
./publish publish
```

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# Team
`wasm-bindgen` follows the [`rustwasm` organization's governance described
here][governance]:
* All pull requests (including those made by a team member) must be approved by
at least one other team member.
* Larger, more nuanced decisions about design, architecture, breaking changes,
trade offs, etc are made by team consensus.
[governance]: https://github.com/rustwasm/team/blob/master/GOVERNANCE.md#repositories
## Members
<style>
img {
max-width: 117px;
max-height: 117px;
}
</style>
| [![](https://github.com/alexcrichton.png?size=117)][alexcrichton] | [![](https://github.com/fitzgen.png?size=117)][fitzgen] | [![](https://github.com/spastorino.png?size=117)][spastorino] | [![](https://github.com/ohanar.png?size=117)][ohanar] | [![](https://github.com/jonathan-s.png?size=117)][jonathan-s] |
|:---:|:---:|:---:|:---:|
| [`alexcrichton`][alexcrichton] | [`fitzgen`][fitzgen] | [`spastorino`][spastorino] | [`ohanar`][ohanar] | [`jonathan-s`][jonathan-s] |
| [![](https://github.com/sendilkumarn.png?size=117)][sendilkumarn] | [![](https://github.com/belfz.png?size=117)][belfz] | [![](https://github.com/afdw.png?size=117)][afdw] | | |
| [`sendilkumarn`][sendilkumarn] | [`belfz`][belfz] | [`afdw`][afdw] | | |
[alexcrichton]: https://github.com/alexcrichton
[fitzgen]: https://github.com/fitzgen
[spastorino]: https://github.com/spastorino
[ohanar]: https://github.com/ohanar
[jonathan-s]: https://github.com/jonathan-s
[sendilkumarn]: https://github.com/sendilkumarn
[belfz]: https://github.com/belfz
[afdw]: https://github.com/afdw

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# Running `wasm-bindgen`'s Tests
## Wasm Tests on Node and Headless Browsers
These are the largest test suites, and most common to run in day to day
`wasm-bindgen` development. These tests are compiled to Wasm and then run in
Node.js or a headless browser via the WebDriver protocol.
```bash
cargo test --target wasm32-unknown-unknown
```
See [the `wasm-bindgen-test` crate's
`README.md`](https://github.com/rustwasm/wasm-bindgen/blob/master/crates/test/README.md)
for details and configuring which headless browser is used.
## Sanity Tests for `wasm-bindgen` on the Native Host Target
This small test suite just verifies that exported `wasm-bindgen` methods can
still be used on the native host's target.
```
cargo test
```
## The Web IDL Frontend's Tests
```
cargo test -p webidl-tests --target wasm32-unknown-unknown
```
## The Macro UI Tests
These tests assert that we have reasonable error messages that point to the
right source spans when the `#[wasm_bindgen]` proc-macro is misused.
```
cargo test -p ui-tests
```
## The `js-sys` Tests
See [the `js-sys` testing page](js-sys/testing.html).
## The `web-sys` Tests
See [the `web-sys` testing page](web-sys/testing.html).

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# `web-sys`
The `web-sys` crate provides raw bindings to all of the Web's APIs, and its
source lives at `wasm-bindgen/crates/web-sys`.
The `web-sys` crate is **entirely** mechanically generated inside `build.rs`
using `wasm-bindgen`'s WebIDL frontend and the WebIDL interface definitions for
Web APIs. This means that `web-sys` isn't always the most ergonomic crate to
use, but it's intended to provide verified and correct bindings to the web
platform, and then better interfaces can be iterated on crates.io!
Documentation for the published version of this crate is available on
[docs.rs][docsrs] but you can also check out the [master branch
documentation][masterdoc] for the crate.
[docsrs]: https://docs.rs/web-sys
[masterdoc]: https://rustwasm.github.io/wasm-bindgen/api/web_sys/

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# Logging
The `wasm_bindgen_webidl` crate (used by `web-sys`'s `build.rs`) uses
[`env_logger`][env_logger] for logging, which can be enabled by setting the
`RUST_LOG=wasm_bindgen_webidl` environment variable while building the `web-sys`
crate.
Make sure to enable "very verbose" output during `cargo build` to see these logs
within `web-sys`'s build script output.
```sh
cd crates/web-sys
RUST_LOG=wasm_bindgen_webidl cargo build -vv
```
If `wasm_bindgen_webidl` encounters WebIDL constructs that it doesn't know how
to translate into `wasm-bindgen` AST items, it will emit warn-level logs.
```
WARN 2018-07-06T18:21:49Z: wasm_bindgen_webidl: Unsupported WebIDL interface: ...
```
[env_logger]: https://crates.io/crates/env_logger

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# `web-sys` Overview
The `web-sys` crate has this file and directory layout:
```text
.
├── build.rs
├── Cargo.toml
├── README.md
├── src
│ └── lib.rs
└── webidls
└── enabled
└── ...
```
### `webidls/enabled/*.webidl`
These are the WebIDL interfaces that we will actually generate bindings for (or
at least bindings for *some* of the things defined in these files).
### `build.rs`
The `build.rs` invokes `wasm-bindgen`'s WebIDL frontend on all the WebIDL files
in `webidls/enabled`. It writes the resulting bindings into the cargo build's
out directory.
### `src/lib.rs`
The only thing `src/lib.rs` does is include the bindings generated at compile
time in `build.rs`. Here is the whole `src/lib.rs` file:
```rust
{{#include ../../../../crates/web-sys/src/lib.rs}}
```
### Cargo features
When compiled the crate is almost empty by default, which probably isn't what
you want! Due to the very large number of APIs, this crate uses features to
enable portions of its API to reduce compile times. The list of features in
`Cargo.toml` all correspond to types in the generated functions. Enabling a
feature enables that type. All methods should indicate what features need to be
activated to use the method.

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# Supporting More Web APIs in `web-sys`
1. Ensure that the `.webidl` file describing the
interface exists somewhere within the `crates/web-sys/webidls/enabled`
directory.
First, check to see whether we have the WebIDL definition file for
your API:
```sh
grep -rn MyWebApi crates/web-sys/webidls
```
* If your interface is defined in a `.webidl` file that is inside the
`crates/web-sys/webidls/enabled` directory, skip to step (3).
* If your interface isn't defined in any file yet, find the WebIDL definition
in the relevant standard and add it as a new `.webidl` file in
`crates/web-sys/webidls/enabled`. Make sure that it is a standard Web API!
We don't want to add non-standard APIs to this crate.
* If your interface is defined in a `.webidl` file within any of the
`crates/web-sys/webidls/unavailable_*` directories, you need to move it into
`crates/web-sys/webidls/enabled`, e.g.:
```sh
cd crates/web-sys
git mv webidls/unavailable_enum_ident/MyWebApi.webidl webidls/enabled/MyWebApi.webidl
```
2. Regenerate the `web-sys` crate auto-generated bindings, which you can do with
the following commands:
```sh
cd crates/web-sys
cargo run --release --package wasm-bindgen-webidl -- webidls src/features
```
You can then use `git diff` to ensure the bindings look correct.

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# Testing
You can test the `web-sys` crate by running `cargo test` within the
`crates/web-sys` directory in the `wasm-bindgen` repository:
```sh
cd wasm-bindgen/crates/web-sys
cargo test --target wasm32-unknown-unknown --all-features
```
The Wasm tests all run within a headless browser. See [the `wasm-bindgen-test`
crate's
`README.md`](https://github.com/rustwasm/wasm-bindgen/blob/master/crates/test/README.md)
for details and configuring which headless browser is used.

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# 2D Canvas
[View full source code][code] or [view the compiled example online][online]
[online]: https://rustwasm.github.io/wasm-bindgen/exbuild/canvas/
[code]: https://github.com/rustwasm/wasm-bindgen/tree/master/examples/canvas
Drawing a smiley face with the 2D canvas API. This is a port of part of [this
MDN
tutorial](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/Canvas_API/Tutorial/Drawing_shapes#Moving_the_pen)
to `web-sys`.
![A smiley face](./2d-canvas.png)
## `Cargo.toml`
The `Cargo.toml` enables features necessary to query the DOM and work with 2D
canvas.
```toml
{{#include ../../../examples/canvas/Cargo.toml}}
```
## `src/lib.rs`
Gets the `<canvas>` element, creates a 2D rendering context, and draws the
smiley face.
```rust
{{#include ../../../examples/canvas/src/lib.rs}}
```

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# Small wasm files
[View full source code][code] or [view the compiled example online][online]
[online]: https://rustwasm.github.io/wasm-bindgen/exbuild/add/
[code]: https://github.com/rustwasm/wasm-bindgen/tree/master/examples/add
One of `wasm-bindgen`'s core goals is a pay-only-for-what-you-use philosophy, so
if we don't use much then we shouldn't be paying much! As a result
`#[wasm_bindgen]` can generate super-small executables
Currently this code...
```rust
{{#include ../../../examples/add/src/lib.rs}}
```
generates a 710 byte wasm binary:
```
$ ls -l add_bg.wasm
-rw-rw-r-- 1 alex alex 710 Sep 19 17:32 add_bg.wasm
```
If you run [wasm-opt], a C++ tool for optimize WebAssembly, you can make it
even smaller too!
```
$ wasm-opt -Os add_bg.wasm -o add.wasm
$ ls -l add.wasm
-rw-rw-r-- 1 alex alex 172 Sep 19 17:33 add.wasm
```
And sure enough, using the [wasm2wat] tool it's quite small!
```
$ wasm2wat add.wasm
(module
(type (;0;) (func (param i32 i32) (result i32)))
(func (;0;) (type 0) (param i32 i32) (result i32)
get_local 1
get_local 0
i32.add)
(table (;0;) 1 1 anyfunc)
(memory (;0;) 17)
(global (;0;) i32 (i32.const 1049118))
(global (;1;) i32 (i32.const 1049118))
(export "memory" (memory 0))
(export "__indirect_function_table" (table 0))
(export "__heap_base" (global 0))
(export "__data_end" (global 1))
(export "add" (func 0))
(data (i32.const 1049096) "invalid malloc request"))
```
Also don't forget to compile in release mode for the smallest binaries! For
larger applications you'll likely also want to turn on LTO to generate the
smallest binaries:
```toml
[profile.release]
lto = true
```
[wasm2wat]: https://github.com/webassembly/wabt
[wasm-opt]: https://github.com/webassembly/binaryen

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# Working with the `char` type
[View full source code][code] or [view the compiled example online][online]
[online]: https://rustwasm.github.io/wasm-bindgen/exbuild/char/
[code]: https://github.com/rustwasm/wasm-bindgen/tree/master/examples/char
The `#[wasm_bindgen]` macro will convert the rust `char` type to a single
code-point js `string`, and this example shows how to work with this.
Opening this example should display a single counter with a random character
for it's `key` and 0 for its `count`. You can click the `+` button to increase a
counter's count. By clicking on the "add counter" button you should see a new
counter added to the list with a different random character for it's `key`.
Under the hood javascript is choosing a random character from an Array of
characters and passing that to the rust Counter struct's constructor so the
character you are seeing on the page has made the full round trip from js to
rust and back to js.
## `src/lib.rs`
```rust
{{#include ../../../examples/char/src/lib.rs}}
```
## `index.js`
```js
{{#include ../../../examples/char/index.js}}
```

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# web-sys: Closures
[View full source code][code] or [view the compiled example online][online]
[online]: https://rustwasm.github.io/wasm-bindgen/exbuild/closures/
[code]: https://github.com/rustwasm/wasm-bindgen/tree/master/examples/closures
One of the features of `#[wasm_bindgen]` is that you can pass closures defined
in Rust off to JS. This can be a bit tricky at times, though, so the example
here shows how to interact with some standard web APIs with closures.
## `src/lib.rs`
```rust
{{#include ../../../examples/closures/src/lib.rs}}
```

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# `console.log`
[View full source code][code] or [view the compiled example online][online]
[online]: https://rustwasm.github.io/wasm-bindgen/exbuild/console_log/
[code]: https://github.com/rustwasm/wasm-bindgen/tree/master/examples/console_log
This example shows off how to use `console.log` in a variety of ways, all the
way from bare-bones usage to a `println!`-like macro with `web_sys`.
## `src/lib.rs`
```rust
{{#include ../../../examples/console_log/src/lib.rs}}
```

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# web-sys: DOM hello world
[View full source code][code] or [view the compiled example online][online]
[online]: https://rustwasm.github.io/wasm-bindgen/exbuild/dom/
[code]: https://github.com/rustwasm/wasm-bindgen/tree/master/examples/dom
Using `web-sys` we're able to interact with all the standard web platform
methods, including those of the DOM! Here we take a look at a simple "Hello,
world!" which manufactures a DOM element in Rust, customizes it, and then
appends it to the page.
## `Cargo.toml`
You can see here how we depend on `web-sys` and activate associated features to
enable all the various APIs:
```toml
{{#include ../../../examples/dom/Cargo.toml}}
```
## `src/lib.rs`
```rust
{{#include ../../../examples/dom/src/lib.rs}}
```

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# The `fetch` API
[View full source code][code] or [view the compiled example online][online]
[online]: https://rustwasm.github.io/wasm-bindgen/exbuild/fetch/
[code]: https://github.com/rustwasm/wasm-bindgen/tree/master/examples/fetch
This example uses the `fetch` API to make an HTTP request to the GitHub API and
then parses the resulting JSON.
## `Cargo.toml`
The `Cargo.toml` enables a number of features related to the `fetch` API and
types used: `Headers`, `Request`, etc.
```toml
{{#include ../../../examples/fetch/Cargo.toml}}
```
## `src/lib.rs`
```rust
{{#include ../../../examples/fetch/src/lib.rs}}
```

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# Hello, World!
[View full source code][code] or [view the compiled example online][online]
[online]: https://rustwasm.github.io/wasm-bindgen/exbuild/hello_world/
[code]: https://github.com/rustwasm/wasm-bindgen/tree/master/examples/hello_world
This is the "Hello, world!" example of `#[wasm_bindgen]` showing how to set up
a project, export a function to JS, call it from JS, and then call the `alert`
function in Rust.
## `Cargo.toml`
The `Cargo.toml` lists the `wasm-bindgen` crate as a dependency.
Also of note is the `crate-type = ["cdylib"]` which is largely used for wasm
final artifacts today.
```toml
{{#include ../../../examples/hello_world/Cargo.toml}}
```
## `src/lib.rs`
Here we define our Rust entry point along with calling the `alert` function.
```rust
{{#include ../../../examples/hello_world/src/lib.rs}}
```
## `index.js`
Our JS entry point is quite small!
```js
{{#include ../../../examples/hello_world/index.js}}
```
## Webpack-specific files
> **Note**: Webpack is required for this example, and if you're interested
> in options that don't use a JS bundler [see other examples][wab].
[wab]: without-a-bundler.html
And finally here's the Webpack configuration and `package.json` for this
project:
**webpack.config.js**
```js
{{#include ../../../examples/hello_world/webpack.config.js}}
```
**package.json**
```json
{{#include ../../../examples/hello_world/package.json}}
```

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# Importing non-browser JS
[View full source code][code] or [view the compiled example online][online]
[online]: https://rustwasm.github.io/wasm-bindgen/exbuild/import_js/
[code]: https://github.com/rustwasm/wasm-bindgen/tree/master/examples/import_js
The `#[wasm_bindgen]` attribute can be used on `extern "C" { .. }` blocks to import
functionality from JS. This is how the `js-sys` and the `web-sys` crates are
built, but you can also use it in your own crate!
For example if you're working with this JS file:
```js
// defined-in-js.js
{{#include ../../../examples/import_js/crate/defined-in-js.js}}
```
you can use it in Rust with:
```rust
{{#include ../../../examples/import_js/crate/src/lib.rs}}
```
You can also [explore the full list of ways to configure imports][attr]
[attr]: ../reference/attributes/on-js-imports/index.html

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# Examples of using `wasm-bindgen`, `js-sys`, and `web-sys`
This subsection contains examples of using the `wasm-bindgen`, `js-sys`, and
`web-sys` crates. Each example should have more information about what it's
doing.
These examples all assume familiarity with `wasm-bindgen`, `wasm-pack`, and
building a Rust and WebAssembly project. If you're unfamiliar with these check
out the [Game of Life tutorial][gol] or [wasm pack tutorials][wpt] to help you
get started.
The source code for all examples can also be [found online][code] to download
and run locally. Most examples are configured with Webpack/`wasm-pack` and can
be built with `npm run serve`. Other examples which don't use Webpack are
accompanied with instructions or a `build.sh` showing how to build it.
Note that most examples currently use Webpack to assemble the final output
artifact, but this is not required! You can review the [deployment
documentation][deploy] for other options of how to deploy Rust and WebAssembly.
[code]: https://github.com/rustwasm/wasm-bindgen/tree/master/examples
[gol]: https://rustwasm.github.io/docs/book/
[deploy]: ../reference/deployment.html
[wpt]: https://rustwasm.github.io/docs/wasm-pack/tutorials/index.html

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# Julia Set
[View full source code][code] or [view the compiled example online][online]
[online]: https://rustwasm.github.io/wasm-bindgen/exbuild/julia_set/
[code]: https://github.com/rustwasm/wasm-bindgen/tree/master/examples/julia_set
While not showing off a lot of `web_sys` API surface area, this example shows a
neat fractal that you can make!
## `index.js`
A small bit of glue is added for this example
```js
{{#include ../../../examples/julia_set/index.js}}
```
## `src/lib.rs`
The bulk of the logic is in the generation of the fractal
```rust
{{#include ../../../examples/julia_set/src/lib.rs}}
```

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# Paint Example
[View full source code][code] or [view the compiled example online][online]
[online]: https://rustwasm.github.io/wasm-bindgen/exbuild/paint/
[code]: https://github.com/rustwasm/wasm-bindgen/tree/master/examples/paint
A simple painting program.
## `Cargo.toml`
The `Cargo.toml` enables features necessary to work with the DOM, events and
2D canvas.
```toml
{{#include ../../../examples/paint/Cargo.toml}}
```
## `src/lib.rs`
Creates the `<canvas>` element, applies a CSS style to it, adds it to the document,
get a 2D rendering context and adds listeners for mouse events.
```rust
{{#include ../../../examples/paint/src/lib.rs}}
```

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# web-sys: `performance.now`
[View full source code][code] or [view the compiled example online][online]
[online]: https://rustwasm.github.io/wasm-bindgen/exbuild/performance/
[code]: https://github.com/rustwasm/wasm-bindgen/tree/master/examples/performance
Want to profile some Rust code in the browser? No problem! You can use the
`performance.now()` API and friends to get timing information to see how long
things take.
## `src/lib.rs`
```rust
{{#include ../../../examples/performance/src/lib.rs}}
```

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# Parallel Raytracing
[View full source code][code] or [view the compiled example online][online]
[online]: https://wasm-bindgen.netlify.app/exbuild/raytrace-parallel/
[code]: https://github.com/rustwasm/wasm-bindgen/tree/master/examples/raytrace-parallel
This is an example of using threads with WebAssembly, Rust, and `wasm-bindgen`,
culminating in a parallel raytracer demo. There's a number of moving pieces to
this demo and it's unfortunately not the easiest thing to wrangle, but it's
hoped that this'll give you a bit of a taste of what it's like to use threads
and wasm with Rust on the web.
### Building the demo
One of the major gotchas with threaded WebAssembly is that Rust does not ship a
precompiled target (e.g. standard library) which has threading support enabled.
This means that you'll need to recompile the standard library with the
appropriate rustc flags, namely
`-C target-feature=+atomics,+bulk-memory,+mutable-globals`.
Note that this requires a nightly Rust toolchain.
To do this you can use the `RUSTFLAGS` environment variable that Cargo reads:
```sh
export RUSTFLAGS='-C target-feature=+atomics,+bulk-memory,+mutable-globals'
```
To recompile the standard library it's recommended to use Cargo's
[`-Zbuild-std`](https://doc.rust-lang.org/nightly/cargo/reference/unstable.html#build-std)
feature:
```sh
cargo build --target wasm32-unknown-unknown -Z build-std=panic_abort,std
```
Note that you can also configure this via `.cargo/config.toml`:
```toml
[unstable]
build-std = ['std', 'panic_abort']
[build]
target = "wasm32-unknown-unknown"
rustflags = '-Ctarget-feature=+atomics,+bulk-memory,+mutable-globals'
```
After this `cargo build` should produce a WebAssembly file with threading
enabled, and the standard library will be appropriately compiled as well.
The final step in this is to run `wasm-bindgen` as usual, and `wasm-bindgen`
needs no extra configuration to work with threads. You can continue to run it
through `wasm-pack`, for example.
### Running the demo
Currently it's required to use the `--target no-modules` or `--target web` flag
with `wasm-bindgen` to run threaded code. This is because the WebAssembly file
imports memory instead of exporting it, so we need to hook initialization of the
wasm module at this time to provide the appropriate memory object. This demo
uses `--target no-modules`, because Firefox does not support modules in workers.
With `--target no-modules` you'll be able to use `importScripts` inside of each
web worker to import the shim JS generated by `wasm-bindgen` as well as calling
the `wasm_bindgen` initialization function with the shared memory instance from
the main thread. The expected usage is that WebAssembly on the main thread will
post its memory object to all other threads to get instantiated with.
### Caveats
Unfortunately at this time running wasm on the web with threads has a number of
caveats, although some are specific to just `wasm-bindgen`. These are some
pieces to consider and watch out for, although we're always looking for
improvements to be made so if you have an idea please file an issue!
* The main thread in a browser cannot block. This means that if you run
WebAssembly code on the main thread you can *never* block, meaning you can't
do so much as acquire a mutex. This is an extremely difficult limitation to
work with on the web, although one workaround is to run wasm exclusively in
web workers and run JS on the main thread. It is possible to run the same wasm
across all threads, but you need to be extremely vigilant about
synchronization with the main thread.
* Setting up a threaded environment is a bit wonky and doesn't feel smooth
today. For example `--target bundler` is unsupported and very specific shims
are required on both the main thread and worker threads. These are possible to
work with but are somewhat brittle since there's no standard way to spin up
web workers as wasm threads.
* There is no standard notion of a "thread". For example the standard library
has no viable route to implement the `std::thread` module. As a consequence
there is no concept of thread exit and TLS destructors will never run.
We do expose a helper, `__wbindgen_thread_destroy`, that deallocates
the thread stack and TLS. If you invoke it, it *must* be the last function
you invoke from the wasm module for a given thread.
* Any thread launched after the first one _might attempt to block_ implicitly
in its initialization routine. This is a constraint introduced by the way
we set up the space for thread stacks and TLS. This means that if you attempt
to run a wasm module in the main thread _after_ you are already running it
in a worker, it might fail.
* Web Workers executing WebAssembly code cannot receive events from JS. A Web
Worker has to fully return back to the browser (and ideally should do so
occasionally) to receive JS messages and such. This means that common
paradigms like a rayon thread pool do not apply straightforward-ly to the web.
The intention of the web is that all long-term blocking happens in the browser
itself, not in each thread, but many crates in the ecosystem leveraging
threading are not necessarily engineered this way.
These caveats are all largely inherited from the web platform itself, and
they're important to consider when designing an application for threading. It's
highly unlikely that you can pull a crate off the shelf and "just use it" due to
these limitations. You'll need to be sure to carefully plan ahead and ensure
that gotchas such as these don't cause issues in the future. As mentioned before
though we're always trying to actively develop this support so if folks have
ideas about how to improve, or if web standards change, we'll try to update this
documentation!
### Browser Requirements
This demo should work in the latest Firefox and Chrome versions at this time,
and other browsers are likely to follow suit. Note that threads and
`SharedArrayBuffer` require HTTP headers to be set to work correctly. For more
information see the [documentation on
MDN](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Global_Objects/SharedArrayBuffer)
under "Security requirements" as well as [Firefox's rollout blog
post](https://hacks.mozilla.org/2020/07/safely-reviving-shared-memory/). This
means that during local development you'll need to configure your web server
appropriately or enable a workaround in your browser.

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# `web-sys`: A `requestAnimationFrame` Loop
[View full source code][code] or [view the compiled example online][online]
[online]: https://rustwasm.github.io/wasm-bindgen/exbuild/request-animation-frame/
[code]: https://github.com/rustwasm/wasm-bindgen/tree/master/examples/request-animation-frame
This is an example of a `requestAnimationFrame` loop using the `web-sys` crate!
It renders a count of how many times a `requestAnimationFrame` callback has been
invoked and then it breaks out of the `requestAnimationFrame` loop after 300
iterations.
## `Cargo.toml`
You can see here how we depend on `web-sys` and activate associated features to
enable all the various APIs:
```toml
{{#include ../../../examples/request-animation-frame/Cargo.toml}}
```
## `src/lib.rs`
```rust
{{#include ../../../examples/request-animation-frame/src/lib.rs}}
```

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# Synchronous Instantiation
[View full source code][code]
[code]: https://github.com/rustwasm/wasm-bindgen/tree/master/examples/synchronous-instantiation
This example shows how to synchronously initialize a WebAssembly module as opposed to [asynchronously][without-bundler]. In most cases, the default way of asynchronously initializing a module will suffice. However, there might be use cases where you'd like to lazy load a module on demand and synchronously compile and instantiate it. Note that this only works off the main thread and since compilation and instantiation of large modules can be expensive you should only use this method if it's absolutely required in your use case. Otherwise you should use the [default method][without-bundler].
For this deployment strategy bundlers like Webpack are not required. For more information on deployment see the [dedicated
documentation][deployment].
First let's take a look at our tiny lib:
```rust
{{#include ../../../examples/synchronous-instantiation/src/lib.rs}}
```
Next, let's have a look at the `index.html`:
```html
{{#include ../../../examples/synchronous-instantiation/index.html}}
```
Otherwise the rest of the magic happens in `worker.js`:
```js
{{#include ../../../examples/synchronous-instantiation/worker.js}}
```
And that's it! Be sure to read up on the [deployment options][deployment] to see what it means to deploy without a bundler.
[deployment]: ../reference/deployment.html
[without-bundler]: ./without-a-bundler.html

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# TODO MVC using wasm-bingen and web-sys
[View full source code][code] or [view the compiled example online][online]
[online]: https://rustwasm.github.io/wasm-bindgen/exbuild/todomvc/
[code]: https://github.com/rustwasm/wasm-bindgen/tree/master/examples/todomvc
[element]: https://github.com/rustwasm/wasm-bindgen/tree/master/examples/todomvc/src/element.rs
[scheduler]: https://github.com/rustwasm/wasm-bindgen/tree/master/examples/todomvc/src/scheduler.rs
[wasm-bindgen](https://github.com/rustwasm/wasm-bindgen) and [web-sys](https://rustwasm.github.io/wasm-bindgen/api/web_sys/) coded [TODO MVC](http://todomvc.com/)
The code was rewritten from the [ES6 version](http://todomvc.com/examples/vanilla-es6/).
The core differences are:
- Having an [Element wrapper][element] that takes care of dyn and into refs in web-sys,
- A [Scheduler][scheduler] that allows Controller and View to communicate to each other by emulating something similar to the JS event loop.
## Size
The size of the project hasn't undergone much work to make it optimised yet.
- ~96kb release build
- ~76kb optimised with binaryen
- ~28kb brotli compressed

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# WASM audio worklet
[View full source code][code] or [view the compiled example online][online]
[online]: https://wasm-bindgen.netlify.app/exbuild/wasm-audio-worklet/
[code]: https://github.com/rustwasm/wasm-bindgen/tree/master/examples/wasm-audio-worklet
This is an example of using threads inside specific worklets with WebAssembly,
Rust, and `wasm-bindgen`, culminating in an oscillator demo. This demo should
complement the [parallel-raytrace][parallel-raytrace] example by
demonstrating an alternative approach using ES modules with on-the-fly module
creation.
[parallel-raytrace]: https://rustwasm.github.io/docs/wasm-bindgen/examples/raytrace.html
### Building the demo
One of the major gotchas with threaded WebAssembly is that Rust does not ship a
precompiled target (e.g. standard library) which has threading support enabled.
This means that you'll need to recompile the standard library with the
appropriate rustc flags, namely
`-C target-feature=+atomics,+bulk-memory,+mutable-globals`.
Note that this requires a nightly Rust toolchain. See the [more detailed
instructions][build] of the parallel-raytrace example.
[build]: https://rustwasm.github.io/docs/wasm-bindgen/examples/raytrace.html#building-the-demo
### Caveats
This example shares most of its [caveats][caveats] with the parallel-raytrace
example. However, it tries to encapsulate worklet creation in a Rust module, so
the application developer does not need to maintain custom JS code.
[caveats]: https://rustwasm.github.io/docs/wasm-bindgen/examples/raytrace.html#caveats
### Browser Requirements
This demo should work in the latest Chrome and Safari versions at this time.
Firefox [does not support][firefox-worklet-import] imports in worklet modules,
which are difficult to avoid in this example, as `importScripts` is unavailable
in worklets. Note that this example requires HTTP headers to be set like in
[parallel-raytrace][headers].
[firefox-worklet-import]: https://bugzilla.mozilla.org/show_bug.cgi?id=1572644
[headers]: https://rustwasm.github.io/docs/wasm-bindgen/examples/raytrace.html#browser-requirements

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# js-sys: WebAssembly in WebAssembly
[View full source code][code] or [view the compiled example online][online]
[online]: https://rustwasm.github.io/wasm-bindgen/exbuild/wasm-in-wasm/
[code]: https://github.com/rustwasm/wasm-bindgen/tree/master/examples/wasm-in-wasm
Using the `js-sys` crate we can get pretty meta and instantiate `WebAssembly`
modules from inside `WebAssembly` modules!
## `src/lib.rs`
```rust
{{#include ../../../examples/wasm-in-wasm/src/lib.rs}}
```

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# WASM in Web Worker
[View full source code][code]
[code]: https://github.com/rustwasm/wasm-bindgen/tree/master/examples/wasm-in-web-worker
A simple example of parallel execution by spawning a web worker with `web_sys`,
loading WASM code in the web worker and interacting between the main thread and
the worker.
## Building & compatibility
At the time of this writing, only Chrome supports modules in web workers, e.g.
Firefox does not. To have compatibility across browsers, the whole example is
set up without relying on ES modules as target. Therefore we have to build
with `--target no-modules`. The full command can be found in `build.sh`.
## `Cargo.toml`
The `Cargo.toml` enables features necessary to work with the DOM, log output to
the JS console, creating a worker and reacting to message events.
```toml
{{#include ../../../examples/wasm-in-web-worker/Cargo.toml}}
```
## `src/lib.rs`
Creates a struct `NumberEval` with methods to act as stateful object in the
worker and function `startup` to be launched in the main thread. Also includes
internal helper functions `setup_input_oninput_callback` to attach a
`wasm_bindgen::Closure` as callback to the `oninput` event of the input field
and `get_on_msg_callback` to create a `wasm_bindgen::Closure` which is triggered
when the worker returns a message.
```rust
{{#include ../../../examples/wasm-in-web-worker/src/lib.rs}}
```
## `index.html`
Includes the input element `#inputNumber` to type a number into and a HTML
element `#resultField` were the result of the evaluation even/odd is written to.
Since we require to build with `--target no-modules` to be able to load WASM
code in in the worker across browsers, the `index.html` also includes loading
both `wasm_in_web_worker.js` and `index.js`.
```html
{{#include ../../../examples/wasm-in-web-worker/index.html}}
```
## `index.js`
Loads our WASM file asynchronously and calls the entry point `startup` of the
main thread which will create a worker.
```js
{{#include ../../../examples/wasm-in-web-worker/index.js}}
```
## `worker.js`
Loads our WASM file by first importing `wasm_bindgen` via
`importScripts('./pkg/wasm_in_web_worker.js')` and then awaiting the Promise
returned by `wasm_bindgen(...)`. Creates a new object to do the background
calculation and bind a method of the object to the `onmessage` callback of the
worker.
```js
{{#include ../../../examples/wasm-in-web-worker/worker.js}}
```

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# Converting WebAssembly to JS
[View full source code][code]
[code]: https://github.com/rustwasm/wasm-bindgen/tree/master/examples/wasm2js
Not all browsers have support for `WebAssembly` at this time (although all major
ones do). If you'd like to support older browsers, you probably want a method
that doesn't involve keeping two codebases in sync!
Thankfully there's a tool from [binaryen] called `wasm2js` to convert a wasm
file to JS. This JS file, if successfully produced, is equivalent to the wasm
file (albeit a little bit larger and slower), and can be loaded into practically
any browser.
This example is relatively simple (cribbing from the [`console.log`
example](console-log.md)):
```rust
{{#include ../../../examples/wasm2js/src/lib.rs}}
```
The real magic happens when you actually build the app. Just after
`wasm-bindgen` we see here how we execute `wasm2js` in our build script:
```sh
{{#include ../../../examples/wasm2js/build.sh}}
```
Note that the `wasm2js` tool is still pretty early days so there's likely to be
a number of bugs to run into or work around. If any are encountered though
please feel free to report them upstream!
Also note that eventually this will ideally be automatically done by your
bundler and no action would be needed from you to work in older browsers via
`wasm2js`!
[binaryen]: https://github.com/WebAssembly/binaryen

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# web-sys: Weather report
[View full source code][code] or [view the compiled example online][online]
[online]: https://rustwasm.github.io/wasm-bindgen/exbuild/weather_report/
[code]: https://github.com/rustwasm/wasm-bindgen/tree/master/examples/weather_report
This example makes an HTTP request to [OpenWeather API](https://openweathermap.org/),
parses response in JSON and render UI from that JSON. It also shows the usage of
`spawn_local` function for handling asynchronous tasks.
Please add your api key in *get_response()* before running this application.
## `src/lib.rs`
```rust
{{#include ../../../examples/weather_report/src/lib.rs}}
```

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# WebAudio
[View full source code][code] or [view the compiled example online][online]
[online]: https://rustwasm.github.io/wasm-bindgen/exbuild/webaudio/
[code]: https://github.com/rustwasm/wasm-bindgen/tree/master/examples/webaudio
This example creates an [FM
oscillator](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency_modulation_synthesis) using
the [WebAudio
API](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/Web_Audio_API) and
`web-sys`.
## `Cargo.toml`
The `Cargo.toml` enables the types needed to use the relevant bits of the
WebAudio API.
```toml
{{#include ../../../examples/webaudio/Cargo.toml}}
```
## `src/lib.rs`
The Rust code implements the FM oscillator.
```rust
{{#include ../../../examples/webaudio/src/lib.rs}}
```
## `index.js`
A small bit of JavaScript glues the rust module to input widgets and translates
events into calls into wasm code.
```js
{{#include ../../../examples/webaudio/index.js}}
```

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# WebGL Example
[View full source code][code] or [view the compiled example online][online]
[online]: https://rustwasm.github.io/wasm-bindgen/exbuild/webgl/
[code]: https://github.com/rustwasm/wasm-bindgen/tree/master/examples/webgl
This example draws a triangle to the screen using the WebGL API.
## `Cargo.toml`
The `Cargo.toml` enables features necessary to obtain and use a WebGL
rendering context.
```toml
{{#include ../../../examples/webgl/Cargo.toml}}
```
## `src/lib.rs`
This source file handles all of the necessary logic to obtain a rendering
context, compile shaders, fill a buffer with vertex coordinates, and draw a
triangle to the screen.
```rust
{{#include ../../../examples/webgl/src/lib.rs}}
```

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# WebRTC DataChannel Example
[View full source code][code] or [view the compiled example online][online]
[online]: https://rustwasm.github.io/wasm-bindgen/exbuild/webrtc_datachannel/
[code]: https://github.com/rustwasm/wasm-bindgen/tree/master/examples/webrtc_datachannel/
This example creates 2 peer connections and 2 data channels in single browser tab.
Send ping/pong between `peer1.dc` and `peer2.dc`.
## `Cargo.toml`
The `Cargo.toml` enables features necessary to use WebRTC DataChannel and its negotiation.
```toml
{{#include ../../../examples/webrtc_datachannel/Cargo.toml}}
```
## `src/lib.rs`
The Rust code connects WebRTC data channel.
```rust
{{#include ../../../examples/webrtc_datachannel/src/lib.rs}}
```

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# WebSockets Example
[View full source code][code] or [view the compiled example online][online]
[online]: https://rustwasm.github.io/wasm-bindgen/exbuild/websockets/
[code]: https://github.com/rustwasm/wasm-bindgen/tree/master/examples/websockets/
This example connects to an echo server on `wss://echo.websocket.org`,
sends a `ping` message, and receives the response.
## `Cargo.toml`
The `Cargo.toml` enables features necessary to create a `WebSocket` object and
to access events such as `MessageEvent` or `ErrorEvent`.
```toml
{{#include ../../../examples/websockets/Cargo.toml}}
```
## `src/lib.rs`
This code shows the basic steps required to work with a `WebSocket`.
At first it opens the connection, then subscribes to events `onmessage`, `onerror`, `onopen`.
After the socket is opened it sends a `ping` message, receives an echoed response
and prints it to the browser console.
```rust
{{#include ../../../examples/websockets/src/lib.rs}}
```

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# Without a Bundler
[View full source code][code]
[code]: https://github.com/rustwasm/wasm-bindgen/tree/master/examples/without-a-bundler
This example shows how the `--target web` flag can be used load code in a
browser directly. For this deployment strategy bundlers like Webpack are not
required. For more information on deployment see the [dedicated
documentation][deployment].
First, you'll need to add `web-sys` to your Cargo.toml.
```toml
[dependencies.web-sys]
version = "0.3.4"
features = [
'Document',
'Element',
'HtmlElement',
'Node',
'Window',
]
```
Then, let's take a look at the code and see how when we're using `--target web`
we're not actually losing any functionality!
```rust
{{#include ../../../examples/without-a-bundler/src/lib.rs}}
```
Otherwise the rest of the deployment magic happens in `index.html`:
```html
{{#include ../../../examples/without-a-bundler/index.html}}
```
And that's it! Be sure to read up on the [deployment options][deployment] to see
what it means to deploy without a bundler.
[deployment]: ../reference/deployment.html
## Using the older `--target no-modules`
[View full source code][code-no-modules]
[code-no-modules]: https://github.com/rustwasm/wasm-bindgen/tree/master/examples/without-a-bundler-no-modules
The older version of using `wasm-bindgen` without a bundler is to use the
`--target no-modules` flag to the `wasm-bindgen` CLI.
While similar to the newer `--target web`, the `--target no-modules` flag has a
few caveats:
* It does not support [local JS snippets][snippets]
* It does not generate an ES module
With that in mind the main difference is how the wasm/JS code is loaded, and
here's an example of loading the output of `wasm-pack` for the same module as
above.
```html
{{#include ../../../examples/without-a-bundler-no-modules/index.html}}
```
[snippets]: ../reference/js-snippets.html

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# Introduction
This book is about `wasm-bindgen`, a Rust library and CLI tool that facilitate
high-level interactions between wasm modules and JavaScript. The `wasm-bindgen`
tool and crate are only one part of the [Rust and WebAssembly
ecosystem][rustwasm]. If you're not familiar already with `wasm-bindgen` it's
recommended to start by reading the [Game of Life tutorial][gol]. If you're
curious about `wasm-pack`, you can find that [documentation here][wasm-pack].
The `wasm-bindgen` tool is sort of half polyfill for features like the [host
bindings proposal][host] and half features for empowering high-level
interactions between JS and wasm-compiled code (currently mostly from Rust).
More specifically this project allows JS/wasm to communicate with strings, JS
objects, classes, etc, as opposed to purely integers and floats. Using
`wasm-bindgen` for example you can define a JS class in Rust or take a string
from JS or return one. The functionality is growing as well!
Currently this tool is Rust-focused but the underlying foundation is
language-independent, and it's hoping that over time as this tool stabilizes
that it can be used for languages like C/C++!
Notable features of this project includes:
* Importing JS functionality in to Rust such as [DOM manipulation][dom-ex],
[console logging][console-log], or [performance monitoring][perf-ex].
* Exporting Rust functionality to JS such as classes, functions, etc.
* Working with rich types like strings, numbers, classes, closures, and objects
rather than simply `u32` and floats.
* Automatically generating TypeScript bindings for Rust code being consumed by
JS.
With the addition of [`wasm-pack`][wasm-pack] you can run the gamut from running Rust on
the web locally, publishing it as part of a larger application, or even
publishing Rust-compiled-to-WebAssembly on NPM!
[host]: https://github.com/WebAssembly/host-bindings
[dom-ex]: https://github.com/rustwasm/wasm-bindgen/tree/master/examples/dom
[console-log]: https://github.com/rustwasm/wasm-bindgen/tree/master/examples/console_log
[perf-ex]: https://github.com/rustwasm/wasm-bindgen/tree/master/examples/performance
[hello-online]: https://webassembly.studio/?f=gzubao6tg3
[rustwasm]: https://rustwasm.github.io/
[gol]: https://rustwasm.github.io/docs/book/
[wasm-pack]: https://rustwasm.github.io/docs/wasm-pack/

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# Accessing Properties of Untyped JavaScript Values
To read and write arbitrary properties from any untyped JavaScript value
regardless if it is an `instanceof` some JavaScript class or not, use [the
`js_sys::Reflect` APIs][js-sys-reflect]. These APIs are bindings to the
[JavaScript builtin `Reflect` object][mdn-reflect] and its methods.
You might also benefit from [using duck-typed
interfaces](./working-with-duck-typed-interfaces.html) instead of working with
untyped values.
## Reading Properties with `js_sys::Reflect::get`
[API documentation for `js_sys::Reflect::get`.](https://docs.rs/js-sys/0.3.39/js_sys/Reflect/fn.get.html)
A function that returns the value of a property.
#### Rust Usage
```rust
let value = js_sys::Reflect::get(&target, &property_key)?;
```
#### JavaScript Equivalent
```js
let value = target[property_key];
```
## Writing Properties with `js_sys::Reflect::set`
[API documentation for `js_sys::Reflect::set`.](https://docs.rs/js-sys/0.3.39/js_sys/Reflect/fn.set.html)
A function that assigns a value to a property. Returns a boolean that is true if
the update was successful.
#### Rust Usage
```rust
js_sys::Reflect::set(&target, &property_key, &value)?;
```
#### JavaScript Equivalent
```js
target[property_key] = value;
```
## Determining if a Property Exists with `js_sys::Reflect::has`
[API documentation for `js_sys::Reflect::has`.](https://docs.rs/js-sys/0.3.39/js_sys/Reflect/fn.has.html)
The JavaScript `in` operator as function. Returns a boolean indicating whether
an own or inherited property exists on the target.
#### Rust Usage
```rust
if js_sys::Reflect::has(&target, &property_key)? {
// ...
} else {
// ...
}
```
#### JavaScript Equivalent
```js
if (property_key in target) {
// ...
} else {
// ...
}
```
## But wait — there's more!
See [the `js_sys::Reflect` API documentation][js-sys-reflect] for the full
listing of JavaScript value reflection and introspection capabilities.
[js-sys-reflect]: https://docs.rs/js-sys/latest/js_sys/Reflect/index.html
[mdn-reflect]: https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Global_Objects/Reflect

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# Serializing and Deserializing Arbitrary Data Into and From `JsValue` with Serde
It's possible to pass arbitrary data from Rust to JavaScript by serializing it
with [Serde](https://github.com/serde-rs/serde). This can be done through the
[`serde-wasm-bindgen`](https://docs.rs/serde-wasm-bindgen) crate.
## Add dependencies
To use `serde-wasm-bindgen`, you first have to add it as a dependency in your
`Cargo.toml`. You also need the `serde` crate, with the `derive` feature
enabled, to allow your types to be serialized and deserialized with Serde.
```toml
[dependencies]
serde = { version = "1.0", features = ["derive"] }
serde-wasm-bindgen = "0.4"
```
## Derive the `Serialize` and `Deserialize` Traits
Add `#[derive(Serialize, Deserialize)]` to your type. All of your type's
members must also be supported by Serde, i.e. their types must also implement
the `Serialize` and `Deserialize` traits.
For example, let's say we'd like to pass this `struct` to JavaScript; doing so
is not possible in `wasm-bindgen` normally due to the use of `HashMap`s, arrays,
and nested `Vec`s. None of those types are supported for sending across the wasm
ABI naively, but all of them implement Serde's `Serialize` and `Deserialize`.
Note that we do not need to use the `#[wasm_bindgen]` macro.
```rust
use serde::{Serialize, Deserialize};
#[derive(Serialize, Deserialize)]
pub struct Example {
pub field1: HashMap<u32, String>,
pub field2: Vec<Vec<f32>>,
pub field3: [f32; 4],
}
```
## Send it to JavaScript with `serde_wasm_bindgen::to_value`
Here's a function that will pass an `Example` to JavaScript by serializing it to
`JsValue`:
```rust
#[wasm_bindgen]
pub fn send_example_to_js() -> JsValue {
let mut field1 = HashMap::new();
field1.insert(0, String::from("ex"));
let example = Example {
field1,
field2: vec![vec![1., 2.], vec![3., 4.]],
field3: [1., 2., 3., 4.]
};
serde_wasm_bindgen::to_value(&example).unwrap()
}
```
## Receive it from JavaScript with `serde_wasm_bindgen::from_value`
Here's a function that will receive a `JsValue` parameter from JavaScript and
then deserialize an `Example` from it:
```rust
#[wasm_bindgen]
pub fn receive_example_from_js(val: JsValue) {
let example: Example = serde_wasm_bindgen::from_value(val).unwrap();
...
}
```
## JavaScript Usage
In the `JsValue` that JavaScript gets, `field1` will be a `Map`, `field2` will
be a JavaScript `Array` whose members are `Array`s of numbers, and `field3`
will be an `Array` of numbers.
```js
import { send_example_to_js, receive_example_from_js } from "example";
// Get the example object from wasm.
let example = send_example_to_js();
// Add another "Vec" element to the end of the "Vec<Vec<f32>>"
example.field2.push([5, 6]);
// Send the example object back to wasm.
receive_example_from_js(example);
```
## An alternative approach - using JSON
`serde-wasm-bindgen` works by directly manipulating JavaScript values. This
requires a lot of calls back and forth between Rust and JavaScript, which can
sometimes be slow. An alternative way of doing this is to serialize values to
JSON, and then parse them on the other end. Browsers' JSON implementations are
usually quite fast, and so this approach can outstrip `serde-wasm-bindgen`'s
performance in some cases. But this approach supports only types that can be
serialized as JSON, leaving out some important types that `serde-wasm-bindgen`
supports such as `Map`, `Set`, and array buffers.
That's not to say that using JSON is always faster, though - the JSON approach
can be anywhere from 2x to 0.2x the speed of `serde-wasm-bindgen`, depending on
the JS runtime and the values being passed. It also leads to larger code size
than `serde-wasm-bindgen`. So, make sure to profile each for your own use
cases.
This approach is implemented in [`gloo_utils::format::JsValueSerdeExt`]:
```toml
# Cargo.toml
[dependencies]
gloo-utils = { version = "0.1", features = ["serde"] }
```
```rust
use gloo_utils::format::JsValueSerdeExt;
#[wasm_bindgen]
pub fn send_example_to_js() -> JsValue {
let mut field1 = HashMap::new();
field1.insert(0, String::from("ex"));
let example = Example {
field1,
field2: vec![vec![1., 2.], vec![3., 4.]],
field3: [1., 2., 3., 4.]
};
JsValue::from_serde(&example).unwrap()
}
#[wasm_bindgen]
pub fn receive_example_from_js(val: JsValue) {
let example: Example = val.into_serde().unwrap();
...
}
```
[`gloo_utils::format::JsValueSerdeExt`]: https://docs.rs/gloo-utils/latest/gloo_utils/format/trait.JsValueSerdeExt.html
## History
In previous versions of `wasm-bindgen`, `gloo-utils`'s JSON-based Serde support
(`JsValue::from_serde` and `JsValue::into_serde`) was built into `wasm-bindgen`
itself. However, this required a dependency on `serde_json`, which had a
problem: with certain features of `serde_json` and other crates enabled,
`serde_json` would end up with a circular dependency on `wasm-bindgen`, which
is illegal in Rust and caused people's code to fail to compile. So, these
methods were extracted out into `gloo-utils` with an extension trait and the
originals were deprecated.

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# `#[wasm_bindgen]` Attributes
The `#[wasm_bindgen]` macro supports a good amount of configuration for
controlling precisely how exports are exported, how imports are imported, and
what the generated JavaScript glue ends up looking like. This section is an
exhaustive reference of the possibilities!

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# `catch`
The `catch` attribute allows catching a JavaScript exception. This can be
attached to any imported function or method, and the function must return a
`Result` where the `Err` payload is a `JsValue`:
```rust
#[wasm_bindgen]
extern "C" {
// `catch` on a standalone function.
#[wasm_bindgen(catch)]
fn foo() -> Result<(), JsValue>;
// `catch` on a method.
type Zoidberg;
#[wasm_bindgen(catch, method)]
fn woop_woop_woop(this: &Zoidberg) -> Result<u32, JsValue>;
}
```
If calling the imported function throws an exception, then `Err` will be
returned with the exception that was raised. Otherwise, `Ok` is returned with
the result of the function.
> By default `wasm-bindgen` will take no action when wasm calls a JS function
> which ends up throwing an exception. The wasm spec right now doesn't support
> stack unwinding and as a result Rust code **will not execute destructors**.
> This can unfortunately cause memory leaks in Rust right now, but as soon as
> wasm implements catching exceptions we'll be sure to add support as well!

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# `constructor`
The `constructor` attribute is used to indicate that the function being bound
should actually translate to calling the `new` operator in JavaScript. The final
argument must be a type that's imported from JavaScript, and it's what will get
used in the generated glue:
```rust
#[wasm_bindgen]
extern "C" {
type Shoes;
#[wasm_bindgen(constructor)]
fn new() -> Shoes;
}
```
This will attach a `new` static method to the `Shoes` type, and in JavaScript
when this method is called, it will be equivalent to `new Shoes()`.
```rust
// Become a cobbler; construct `new Shoes()`
let shoes = Shoes::new();
```

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# `extends = Class`
The `extends` attribute can be used to say that an imported type extends (in the
JS class hierarchy sense) another type. This will generate `AsRef`, `AsMut`, and
`From` impls for converting a type into another given that we statically know
the inheritance hierarchy:
```rust
#[wasm_bindgen]
extern "C" {
type Foo;
#[wasm_bindgen(extends = Foo)]
type Bar;
}
let x: &Bar = ...;
let y: &Foo = x.as_ref(); // zero cost cast
```
The trait implementations generated for the above block are:
```rust
impl From<Bar> for Foo { ... }
impl AsRef<Foo> for Bar { ... }
impl AsMut<Foo> for Bar { ... }
```
The `extends = ...` attribute can be specified multiple times for longer
inheritance chains, and `AsRef` and such impls will be generated for each of
the types.
```rust
#[wasm_bindgen]
extern "C" {
type Foo;
#[wasm_bindgen(extends = Foo)]
type Bar;
#[wasm_bindgen(extends = Foo, extends = Bar)]
type Baz;
}
let x: &Baz = ...;
let y1: &Bar = x.as_ref();
let y2: &Foo = y1.as_ref();
```

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# `final`
The `final` attribute is the converse of the [`structural`
attribute](structural.html). It configures how `wasm-bindgen` will generate JS
imports to call the imported function. Notably a function imported by `final`
never changes after it was imported, whereas a function imported by default (or
with `structural`) is subject to runtime lookup rules such as walking the
prototype chain of an object. Note that `final` is not suitable for accessing
data descriptor properties of JS objects; to accomplish this, use the `structural`
attribute.
[host-bindings]: https://github.com/WebAssembly/host-bindings
[reference-types]: https://github.com/WebAssembly/reference-types
The `final` attribute is intended to be purely related to performance. It
ideally has no user-visible effect, and `structural` imports (the default)
should be able to transparently switch to `final` eventually.
The eventual performance aspect is that with the [host bindings
proposal][host-bindings] then `wasm-bindgen` will need to generate far fewer JS
function shims to import than it does today. For example, consider this import
today:
```rust
#[wasm_bindgen]
extern "C" {
type Foo;
#[wasm_bindgen(method)]
fn bar(this: &Foo, argument: &str) -> JsValue;
}
```
**Without the `final` attribute** the generated JS looks like this:
```js
// without `final`
export function __wbg_bar_a81456386e6b526f(arg0, arg1, arg2) {
let varg1 = getStringFromWasm(arg1, arg2);
return addHeapObject(getObject(arg0).bar(varg1));
}
```
We can see here that this JS function shim is required, but it's all relatively
self-contained. It does, however, execute the `bar` method in a duck-type-y
fashion in the sense that it never validates `getObject(arg0)` is of type `Foo`
to actually call the `Foo.prototype.bar` method.
If we instead, however, write this:
```rust
#[wasm_bindgen]
extern "C" {
type Foo;
#[wasm_bindgen(method, final)] // note the change here
fn bar(this: &Foo, argument: &str) -> JsValue;
}
```
it generates this JS glue (roughly):
```js
const __wbg_bar_target = Foo.prototype.bar;
export function __wbg_bar_a81456386e6b526f(arg0, arg1, arg2) {
let varg1 = getStringFromWasm(arg1, arg2);
return addHeapObject(__wbg_bar_target.call(getObject(arg0), varg1));
}
```
The difference here is pretty subtle, but we can see how the function being
called is hoisted out of the generated shim and is bound to always be
`Foo.prototype.bar`. This then uses the `Function.call` method to invoke that
function with `getObject(arg0)` as the receiver.
But wait, there's still a JS function shim here even with `final`! That's true,
and this is simply a fact of future WebAssembly proposals not being implemented
yet. The semantics, though, match the future [host bindings
proposal][host-bindings] because the method being called is determined exactly
once, and it's located on the prototype chain rather than being resolved at
runtime when the function is called.
## Interaction with future proposals
If you're curious to see how our JS function shim will be eliminated entirely,
let's take a look at the generated bindings. We're starting off with this:
```js
const __wbg_bar_target = Foo.prototype.bar;
export function __wbg_bar_a81456386e6b526f(arg0, arg1, arg2) {
let varg1 = getStringFromWasm(arg1, arg2);
return addHeapObject(__wbg_bar_target.call(getObject(arg0), varg1));
}
```
... and once the [reference types proposal][reference-types] is implemented then
we won't need some of these pesky functions. That'll transform our generated JS
shim to look like:
```js
const __wbg_bar_target = Foo.prototype.bar;
export function __wbg_bar_a81456386e6b526f(arg0, arg1, arg2) {
let varg1 = getStringFromWasm(arg1, arg2);
return __wbg_bar_target.call(arg0, varg1);
}
```
Getting better! Next up we need the host bindings proposal. Note that the
proposal is undergoing some changes right now so it's tough to link to reference
documentation, but it suffices to say that it'll empower us with at least two
different features.
First, host bindings promises to provide the concept of "argument conversions".
The `arg1` and `arg2` values here are actually a pointer and a length to a utf-8
encoded string, and with host bindings we'll be able to annotate that this
import should take those two arguments and convert them to a JS string (that is,
the *host* should do this, the WebAssembly engine). Using that feature we can
futher trim this down to:
```js
const __wbg_bar_target = Foo.prototype.bar;
export function __wbg_bar_a81456386e6b526f(arg0, varg1) {
return __wbg_bar_target.call(arg0, varg1);
}
```
And finally, the second promise of the host bindings proposal is that we can
flag a function call to indicate the first argument is the `this` binding of the
function call. Today the `this` value of all called imported functions is
`undefined`, and this flag (configured with host bindings) will indicate the
first argument here is actually the `this`.
With that in mind we can further transform this to:
```js
export const __wbg_bar_a81456386e6b526f = Foo.prototype.bar;
```
and voila! We, with [reference types][reference-types] and [host
bindings][host-bindings], now have no JS function shim at all necessary to call
the imported function. Additionally future wasm proposals to the ES module
system may also mean that don't even need the `export const ...` here too.
It's also worth pointing out that with all these wasm proposals implemented the
default way to import the `bar` function (aka `structural`) would generate a JS
function shim that looks like:
```js
export function __wbg_bar_a81456386e6b526f(varg1) {
return this.bar(varg1);
}
```
where this import is still subject to runtime prototype chain lookups and such.

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# `getter` and `setter`
These two attributes can be combined with `method` to indicate that this is a
getter or setter method. A `getter`-tagged function by default accesses the
JavaScript property with the same name as the getter function. A `setter`'s
function name is currently required to start with `set_` and the property it
accesses is the suffix after `set\_`.
Consider the following JavaScript class that has a getter and setter for the
`white_russians` property:
```js
class TheDude {
get white_russians() {
...
}
set white_russians(val) {
...
}
}
```
We would import this with the following `#[wasm_bindgen]` attributes:
```rust
#[wasm_bindgen]
extern "C" {
type TheDude;
#[wasm_bindgen(method, getter)]
fn white_russians(this: &TheDude) -> u32;
#[wasm_bindgen(method, setter)]
fn set_white_russians(this: &TheDude, val: u32);
}
```
Here we're importing the `TheDude` type and defining the ability to access each
object's `white_russians` property. The first function here is a getter and will
be available in Rust as `the_dude.white_russians()`, and the latter is the
setter which is accessible as `the_dude.set_white_russians(2)`. Note that both
functions have a `this` argument as they're tagged with `method`.
Finally, you can also pass an argument to the `getter` and `setter`
properties to configure what property is accessed. When the property is
explicitly specified then there is no restriction on the method name. For
example the below is equivalent to the above:
```rust
#[wasm_bindgen]
extern "C" {
type TheDude;
#[wasm_bindgen(method, getter = white_russians)]
fn my_custom_getter_name(this: &TheDude) -> u32;
#[wasm_bindgen(method, setter = white_russians)]
fn my_custom_setter_name(this: &TheDude, val: u32);
}
```
Heads up! `getter` and `setter` functions are found on the constructor's
prototype chain once at load time, cached, and then the cached accessor is
invoked on each access. If you need to dynamically walk the prototype chain on
every access, add the `structural` attribute!
```js
// This is the default function Rust will invoke on `the_dude.white_russians()`:
const white_russians = Object.getOwnPropertyDescriptor(
TheDude.prototype,
"white_russians"
).get;
// This is what you get by adding `structural`:
const white_russians = function(the_dude) {
return the_dude.white_russians;
};
```

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# `#[wasm_bindgen]` on JavaScript Imports
This section enumerates the attributes available for customizing bindings for
JavaScript functions and classes imported into Rust within an `extern "C" { ... }`
block.

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# `indexing_getter`, `indexing_setter`, and `indexing_deleter`
These three attributes indicate that a method is an dynamically intercepted
getter, setter, or deleter on the receiver object itself, rather than a direct
access of the receiver's properties. It is equivalent calling the Proxy handler
for the `obj[prop]` operation with some dynamic `prop` variable in JavaScript,
rather than a normal static property access like `obj.prop` on a normal
JavaScript `Object`.
This is useful for binding to `Proxy`s and some builtin DOM types that
dynamically intercept property accesses.
* `indexing_getter` corresponds to `obj[prop]` operation in JavaScript. The
function annotated must have a `this` receiver parameter, a single parameter
that is used for indexing into the receiver (`prop`), and a return type.
* `indexing_setter` corresponds to the `obj[prop] = val` operation in
JavaScript. The function annotated must have a `this` receiver parameter, a
parameter for indexing into the receiver (`prop`), and a value parameter
(`val`).
* `indexing_deleter` corresponds to `delete obj[prop]` operation in
JavaScript. The function annotated must have a `this` receiver and a single
parameter for indexing into the receiver (`prop`).
These must always be used in conjunction with the `structural` and `method`
flags.
For example, consider this JavaScript snippet that uses `Proxy`:
```js
const foo = new Proxy({}, {
get(obj, prop) {
return prop in obj ? obj[prop] : prop.length;
},
set(obj, prop, value) {
obj[prop] = value;
},
deleteProperty(obj, prop) {
delete obj[prop];
},
});
foo.ten;
// 3
foo.ten = 10;
foo.ten;
// 10
delete foo.ten;
foo.ten;
// 3
```
To bind that in `wasm-bindgen` in Rust, we would use the `indexing_*` attributes
on methods:
```rust
#[wasm_bindgen]
extern "C" {
type Foo;
static foo: Foo;
#[wasm_bindgen(method, structural, indexing_getter)]
fn get(this: &Foo, prop: &str) -> u32;
#[wasm_bindgen(method, structural, indexing_setter)]
fn set(this: &Foo, prop: &str, val: u32);
#[wasm_bindgen(method, structural, indexing_deleter)]
fn delete(this: &Foo, prop: &str);
}
assert_eq!(foo.get("ten"), 3);
foo.set("ten", 10);
assert_eq!(foo.get("ten"), 10);
foo.delete("ten");
assert_eq!(foo.get("ten"), 3);
```

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# `js_class = "Blah"`
The `js_class` attribute can be used in conjunction with the `method` attribute
to bind methods of imported JavaScript classes that have been renamed on the
Rust side.
```rust
#[wasm_bindgen]
extern "C" {
// We don't want to import JS strings as `String`, since Rust already has a
// `String` type in its prelude, so rename it as `JsString`.
#[wasm_bindgen(js_name = String)]
type JsString;
// This is a method on the JavaScript "String" class, so specify that with
// the `js_class` attribute.
#[wasm_bindgen(method, js_class = "String", js_name = charAt)]
fn char_at(this: &JsString, index: u32) -> JsString;
}
```

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# `js_name = blah`
The `js_name` attribute can be used to bind to a different function in
JavaScript than the identifier that's defined in Rust.
Most often, this is used to convert a camel-cased JavaScript identifier into a
snake-cased Rust identifier:
```rust
#[wasm_bindgen]
extern "C" {
#[wasm_bindgen(js_name = jsOftenUsesCamelCase)]
fn js_often_uses_camel_case() -> u32;
}
```
Sometimes, it is used to bind to JavaScript identifiers that are not valid Rust
identifiers, in which case `js_name = "some string"` is used instead of `js_name
= ident`:
```rust
#[wasm_bindgen]
extern "C" {
#[wasm_bindgen(js_name = "$$$")]
fn cash_money() -> u32;
}
```
However, you can also use `js_name` to define multiple signatures for
polymorphic JavaScript functions:
```rust
#[wasm_bindgen]
extern "C" {
#[wasm_bindgen(js_namespace = console, js_name = log)]
fn console_log_str(s: &str);
#[wasm_bindgen(js_namespace = console, js_name = log)]
fn console_log_u32(n: u32);
#[wasm_bindgen(js_namespace = console, js_name = log)]
fn console_log_many(a: u32, b: &JsValue);
}
```
All of these functions will call `console.log` in JavaScript, but each
identifier will have only one signature in Rust.
Note that if you use `js_name` when importing a type you'll also need to use the
[`js_class` attribute][jsclass] when defining methods on the type:
```rust
#[wasm_bindgen]
extern "C" {
#[wasm_bindgen(js_name = String)]
type JsString;
#[wasm_bindgen(method, getter, js_class = "String")]
pub fn length(this: &JsString) -> u32;
}
```
The `js_name` attribute can also be used in situations where a JavaScript module uses
`export default`. In this case, setting the `js_name` attribute to "default" on the
`type` declaration, and the [`js_class` attribute][jsclass] to "default" on any methods
on the exported object will generate the correct imports.
For example, a module that would be imported directly in JavaScript:
```javascript
import Foo from "bar";
let f = new Foo();
```
Could be accessed using this definition in Rust:
```rust
#[wasm_bindgen(module = "bar")]
extern "C" {
#[wasm_bindgen(js_name = default)]
type Foo;
#[wasm_bindgen(constructor, js_class = default)]
pub fn new() -> Foo;
}
```
[jsclass]: js_class.html

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# `js_namespace = blah`
This attribute indicates that the JavaScript type is accessed through the given
namespace. For example, the `WebAssembly.Module` APIs are all accessed through
the `WebAssembly` namespace. `js_namespace` can be applied to any import
(function or type) and whenever the generated JavaScript attempts to reference a
name (like a class or function name) it'll be accessed through this namespace.
```rust
#[wasm_bindgen]
extern "C" {
#[wasm_bindgen(js_namespace = console)]
fn log(s: &str);
type Foo;
#[wasm_bindgen(constructor, js_namespace = Bar)]
fn new() -> Foo;
}
log("hello, console!");
Foo::new();
```
This is an example of how to bind namespaced items in Rust. The `log` and `Foo::new` functions will
be available in the Rust module and will be invoked as `console.log` and `new Bar.Foo` in
JavaScript.
It is also possible to access the JavaScript object under the nested namespace.
`js_namespace` also accepts the array of the string to specify the namespace.
```rust
#[wasm_bindgen]
extern "C" {
#[wasm_bindgen(js_namespace = ["window", "document"])]
fn write(s: &str);
}
write("hello, document!");
```
This example shows how to bind `window.document.write` in Rust.

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# `method`
The `method` attribute allows you to describe methods of imported JavaScript
objects. It is applied on a function that has `this` as its first parameter,
which is a shared reference to an imported JavaScript type.
```rust
#[wasm_bindgen]
extern "C" {
type Set;
#[wasm_bindgen(method)]
fn has(this: &Set, element: &JsValue) -> bool;
}
```
This generates a `has` method on `Set` in Rust, which invokes the
`Set.prototype.has` method in JavaScript.
```rust
let set: Set = ...;
let elem: JsValue = ...;
if set.has(&elem) {
...
}
```

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# `module = "blah"`
The `module` attributes configures the module from which items are imported. For
example,
```rust
#[wasm_bindgen(module = "wu/tang/clan")]
extern "C" {
type ThirtySixChambers;
}
```
generates JavaScript import glue like:
```js
import { ThirtySixChambers } from "wu/tang/clan";
```
If a `module` attribute is not present, then the global scope is used
instead. For example,
```rust
#[wasm_bindgen]
extern "C" {
fn illmatic() -> u32;
}
```
generates JavaScript import glue like:
```js
let illmatic = this.illmatic;
```
Note that if the string specified with `module` starts with `./`, `../`, or `/`
then it's interpreted as a path to a [local JS snippet](../../js-snippets.html).
If this doesn't work for your use case you might be interested in the
[`raw_module` attribute](raw_module.html)

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# `no_deref`
The `no_deref` attribute can be used to say that no `Deref` impl should be
generated for an imported type. If this attribute is not present, a `Deref` impl
will be generated with a `Target` of the type's first `extends` attribute, or
`Target = JsValue` if there are no `extends` attributes.
```rust
#[wasm_bindgen]
extern "C" {
type Foo;
#[wasm_bindgen(method)]
fn baz(this: &Foo)
#[wasm_bindgen(extends = Foo, no_deref)]
type Bar;
}
fn do_stuff(bar: &Bar) {
bar.baz() // Does not compile
}
```

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# `raw_module = "blah"`
This attribute performs exactly the same purpose as the [`module`
attribute](module.html) on JS imports, but it does not attempt to interpret
paths starting with `./`, `../`, or `/` as JS snippets. For example:
```rust
#[wasm_bindgen(raw_module = "./some/js/file.js")]
extern "C" {
fn the_function();
}
```
Note that if you use this attribute with a relative or absolute path, it's
likely up to the final bundler or project to assign meaning to that path. This
typically means that the JS file or module will be resolved relative to the
final location of the wasm file itself. That means that `raw_module` is likely
unsuitable for libraries on crates.io, but may be usable within end-user
applications.

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# `static_method_of = Blah`
The `static_method_of` attribute allows one to specify that an imported function
is a static method of the given imported JavaScript class. For example, to bind
to JavaScript's `Date.now()` static method, one would use this attribute:
```rust
#[wasm_bindgen]
extern "C" {
type Date;
#[wasm_bindgen(static_method_of = Date)]
pub fn now() -> f64;
}
```
The `now` function becomes a static method of the imported type in the Rust
bindings as well:
```rust
let instant = Date::now();
```
This is similar to the `js_namespace` attribute, but the usage from within Rust
is different since the method also becomes a static method of the imported type.
Additionally this attribute also specifies that the `this` parameter when
invoking the method is expected to be the JS class, e.g. always invoked as
`Date.now()` instead of `const x = Date.now; x()`.

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# `structural`
> **Note**: As of [RFC 5] this attribute is the default for all imported
> functions. This attribute is largely ignored today and is only retained for
> backwards compatibility and learning purposes.
>
> The inverse of this attribute, [the `final`
> attribute](final.html) is more functionally interesting than
> `structural` (as `structural` is simply the default)
[RFC 5]: https://rustwasm.github.io/rfcs/005-structural-and-deref.html
The `structural` flag can be added to `method` annotations, indicating that the
method being accessed (or property with getters/setters) should be accessed in a
structural, duck-type-y fashion. Rather than walking the constructor's prototype
chain once at load time and caching the property result, the prototype chain is
dynamically walked on every access.
```rust
#[wasm_bindgen]
extern "C" {
type Duck;
#[wasm_bindgen(method, structural)]
fn quack(this: &Duck);
#[wasm_bindgen(method, getter, structural)]
fn is_swimming(this: &Duck) -> bool;
}
```
The constructor for the type here, `Duck`, is not required to exist in
JavaScript (it's not referenced). Instead `wasm-bindgen` will generate shims
that will access the passed in JavaScript value's `quack` method or its
`is_swimming` property.
```js
// Without `structural`, get the method directly off the prototype at load time:
const Duck_prototype_quack = Duck.prototype.quack;
function quack(duck) {
Duck_prototype_quack.call(duck);
}
// With `structural`, walk the prototype chain on every access:
function quack(duck) {
duck.quack();
}
```

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# `typescript_type = "Blah"`
The `typescript_type` attribute is used to specify the TypeScript type for an
imported type. This type will be used in the generated `.d.ts`.
Right now only identifiers are supported, but eventually we'd like to support
all TypeScript types.
```rust
#[wasm_bindgen]
extern "C" {
#[wasm_bindgen(typescript_type = "Foo")]
type Foo;
}
```

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# Variadic Parameters
In javascript, both the types of function arguments, and the number of function arguments are
dynamic. For example
```js
function sum(...rest) {
let i;
// the old way
let old_way = 0;
for (i=0; i<arguments.length; i++) {
old_way += arguments[i];
}
// the new way
let new_way = 0;
for (i=0; i<rest.length; i++) {
new_way += rest[i];
}
// both give the same answer
assert(old_way === new_way);
return new_way;
}
```
This function doesn't translate directly into rust, since we don't currently support variadic
arguments on the wasm target. To bind to it, we use a slice as the last argument, and annotate the
function as variadic:
```rust
#[wasm_bindgen]
extern "C" {
#[wasm_bindgen(variadic)]
fn sum(args: &[i32]) -> i32;
}
```
when we call this function, the last argument will be expanded as the javascript expects.
To export a rust function to javascript with a variadic argument, we will use the same bindgen variadic attribute and assume that the last argument will be the variadic array. For example the following rust function:
```rust
#[wasm_bindgen(variadic)]
pub fn variadic_function(arr: &JsValue) -> JsValue {
arr.into()
}
```
will generate the following TS interface
```ts
export function variadic_function(...arr: any): any;
```

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# Vendor-prefixed APIs
On the web new APIs often have vendor prefixes while they're in an experimental
state. For example the `AudioContext` API is known as `webkitAudioContext` in
Safari at the time of this writing. The `vendor_prefix` attribute indicates
these alternative names, which are used if the normal name isn't defined.
For example to use `AudioContext` you might do:
```rust
#[wasm_bindgen]
extern "C" {
#[wasm_bindgen(vendor_prefix = webkit)]
type AudioContext;
// methods on `AudioContext` ...
}
```
Whenever `AudioContext` is used it'll use `AudioContext` if the global namespace
defines it or alternatively it'll fall back to `webkitAudioContext`.
Note that `vendor_prefix` cannot be used with `module = "..."` or
`js_namespace = ...`, so it's basically limited to web-platform APIs today.

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# `constructor`
When attached to a Rust "constructor" it will make the generated JavaScript
bindings callable as `new Foo()`.
For example, consider this exported Rust type and `constructor` annotation:
```rust
#[wasm_bindgen]
pub struct Foo {
contents: u32,
}
#[wasm_bindgen]
impl Foo {
#[wasm_bindgen(constructor)]
pub fn new() -> Foo {
Foo { contents: 0 }
}
pub fn get_contents(&self) -> u32 {
self.contents
}
}
```
This can be used in JavaScript as:
```js
import { Foo } from './my_module';
const f = new Foo();
console.log(f.get_contents());
```

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# `getter` and `setter`
The `getter` and `setter` attributes can be used in Rust `impl` blocks to define
properties in JS that act like getters and setters of a field. For example:
```rust
#[wasm_bindgen]
pub struct Baz {
field: i32,
}
#[wasm_bindgen]
impl Baz {
#[wasm_bindgen(constructor)]
pub fn new(field: i32) -> Baz {
Baz { field }
}
#[wasm_bindgen(getter)]
pub fn field(&self) -> i32 {
self.field
}
#[wasm_bindgen(setter)]
pub fn set_field(&mut self, field: i32) {
self.field = field;
}
}
```
Can be combined in `JavaScript` like in this snippet:
```js
const obj = new Baz(3);
assert.equal(obj.field, 3);
obj.field = 4;
assert.equal(obj.field, 4);
```
You can also configure the name of the property that is exported in JS like so:
```rust
#[wasm_bindgen]
impl Baz {
#[wasm_bindgen(getter = anotherName)]
pub fn field(&self) -> i32 {
self.field
}
#[wasm_bindgen(setter = anotherName)]
pub fn set_field(&mut self, field: i32) {
self.field = field;
}
}
```
Getters are expected to take no arguments other than `&self` and return the
field's type. Setters are expected to take one argument other than `&mut self`
(or `&self`) and return no values.
The name for a `getter` is by default inferred from the function name it's
attached to. The default name for a `setter` is the function's name minus the
`set_` prefix, and if `set_` isn't a prefix of the function it's an error to not
provide the name explicitly.

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# `getter_with_clone`
By default, Rust exports exposed to JavaScript will generate getters that require fields to implement `Copy`. The `getter_with_clone` attribute can be used to generate getters that require `Clone` instead. This attribute can be applied per struct or per field. For example:
```rust
#[wasm_bindgen]
pub struct Foo {
#[wasm_bindgen(getter_with_clone)]
pub bar: String,
}
#[wasm_bindgen(getter_with_clone)]
pub struct Foo {
pub bar: String,
pub baz: String,
}
```

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# `#[wasm_bindgen]` on Rust Exports
This section enumerates the attributes available for customizing bindings for
Rust functions and `struct`s exported to JavaScript.

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# `inspectable`
By default, structs exported from Rust become JavaScript classes with a single `ptr` property. All other properties are implemented as getters, which are not displayed when calling `toJSON`.
The `inspectable` attribute can be used on Rust structs to provide a `toJSON` and `toString` implementation that display all readable fields. For example:
```rust
#[wasm_bindgen(inspectable)]
pub struct Baz {
pub field: i32,
private: i32,
}
#[wasm_bindgen]
impl Baz {
#[wasm_bindgen(constructor)]
pub fn new(field: i32) -> Baz {
Baz { field, private: 13 }
}
}
```
Provides the following behavior as in this JavaScript snippet:
```js
const obj = new Baz(3);
assert.deepStrictEqual(obj.toJSON(), { field: 3 });
obj.field = 4;
assert.strictEqual(obj.toString(), '{"field":4}');
```
One or both of these implementations can be overridden as desired. Note that the generated `toString` calls `toJSON` internally, so overriding `toJSON` will affect its output as a side effect.
```rust
#[wasm_bindgen]
impl Baz {
#[wasm_bindgen(js_name = toJSON)]
pub fn to_json(&self) -> i32 {
self.field
}
#[wasm_bindgen(js_name = toString)]
pub fn to_string(&self) -> String {
format!("Baz: {}", self.field)
}
}
```
Note that the output of `console.log` will remain unchanged and display only the `ptr` field in browsers. It is recommended to call `toJSON` or `JSON.stringify` in these situations to aid with logging or debugging. Node.js does not suffer from this limitation, see the section below.
## `inspectable` Classes in Node.js
When the `nodejs` target is used, an additional `[util.inspect.custom]` implementation is provided which calls `toJSON` internally. This method is used for `console.log` and similar functions to display all readable fields of the Rust struct.

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# `js_class = Blah`
The `js_class` attribute is used to indicate that all the methods inside an
`impl` block should be attached to the specified JS class instead of inferring
it from the self type in the `impl` block. The `js_class` attribute is most
frequently paired with [the `js_name` attribute](js_name.html) on structs:
```rust
#[wasm_bindgen(js_name = Foo)]
pub struct JsFoo { /* ... */ }
#[wasm_bindgen(js_class = Foo)]
impl JsFoo {
#[wasm_bindgen(constructor)]
pub fn new() -> JsFoo { /* ... */ }
pub fn foo(&self) { /* ... */ }
}
```
which is accessed like:
```rust
import { Foo } from './my_module';
const x = new Foo();
x.foo();
```

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# `js_name = Blah`
The `js_name` attribute can be used to export a different name in JS than what
something is named in Rust. It can be applied to both exported Rust functions
and types.
For example, this is often used to convert between Rust's snake-cased
identifiers into JavaScript's camel-cased identifiers:
```rust
#[wasm_bindgen(js_name = doTheThing)]
pub fn do_the_thing() -> u32 {
42
}
```
This can be used in JavaScript as:
```js
import { doTheThing } from './my_module';
const x = doTheThing();
console.log(x);
```
Like imports, `js_name` can also be used to rename types exported to JS:
```rust
#[wasm_bindgen(js_name = Foo)]
pub struct JsFoo {
// ..
}
```
to be accessed like:
```js
import { Foo } from './my_module';
// ...
```
Note that attaching methods to the JS class `Foo` should be done via the
[`js_class` attribute](js_class.html):
```rust
#[wasm_bindgen(js_name = Foo)]
pub struct JsFoo { /* ... */ }
#[wasm_bindgen(js_class = Foo)]
impl JsFoo {
// ...
}
```

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# `readonly`
When attached to a `pub` struct field this indicates that it's read-only from
JavaScript, and a setter will not be generated and exported to JavaScript.
```rust
#[wasm_bindgen]
pub fn make_foo() -> Foo {
Foo {
first: 10,
second: 20,
}
}
#[wasm_bindgen]
pub struct Foo {
pub first: u32,
#[wasm_bindgen(readonly)]
pub second: u32,
}
```
Here the `first` field will be both readable and writable from JS, but the
`second` field will be a `readonly` field in JS where the setter isn't
implemented and attempting to set it will throw an exception.
```js
import { make_foo } from "./my_module";
const foo = make_foo();
// Can both get and set `first`.
foo.first = 99;
console.log(foo.first);
// Can only get `second`.
console.log(foo.second);
```

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# `skip`
When attached to a `pub` struct field this indicates that field will not be exposed to JavaScript,
and neither getter nor setter will be generated in ES6 class.
```rust
use wasm_bindgen::prelude::*;
#[wasm_bindgen]
pub struct Foo {
pub bar: u32,
#[wasm_bindgen(skip)]
pub baz: u32,
}
#[wasm_bindgen]
impl Foo {
pub fn new() -> Self {
Foo {
bar: 1,
baz: 2
}
}
}
```
Here the `bar` field will be both readable and writable from JS, but the
`baz` field will be `undefined` in JS.
```js
import('./pkg/').then(rust => {
let foo = rust.Foo.new();
// bar is accessible by getter
console.log(foo.bar);
// field marked with `skip` is undefined
console.log(foo.baz);
// you can shadow it
foo.baz = 45;
// so accessing by getter will return `45`
// but it won't affect real value in rust memory
console.log(foo.baz);
});
```

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# `skip_typescript`
By default, Rust exports exposed to JavaScript will generate TypeScript definitions (unless `--no-typescript` is used). The `skip_typescript` attribute can be used to disable type generation per function, enum, struct, or field. For example:
```rust
#[wasm_bindgen(skip_typescript)]
pub enum MyHiddenEnum {
One,
Two,
Three
}
#[wasm_bindgen]
pub struct MyPoint {
pub x: u32,
#[wasm_bindgen(skip_typescript)]
pub y: u32,
}
#[wasm_bindgen]
impl MyPoint {
#[wasm_bindgen(skip_typescript)]
pub fn stringify(&self) -> String {
format!("({}, {})", self.x, self.y)
}
}
```
Will generate the following `.d.ts` file:
```ts
/* tslint:disable */
/* eslint-disable */
export class MyPoint {
free(): void;
x: number;
}
```
When combined with [the `typescript_custom_section` attribute](typescript_custom_section.html), this can be used to manually specify more specific function types instead of using the generated definitions.

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# `start`
When attached to a `pub` function this attribute will configure the `start`
section of the wasm executable to be emitted, executing the tagged function as
soon as the wasm module is instantiated.
```rust
#[wasm_bindgen(start)]
pub fn main() {
// executed automatically ...
}
```
The `start` section of the wasm executable will be configured to execute the
`main` function here as soon as it can. Note that due to various practical
limitations today the start section of the executable may not literally point to
`main`, but the `main` function here should be started up automatically when the
wasm module is loaded.
There's a few caveats to be aware of when using the `start` attribute:
* The `start` function must take no arguments and must either return `()` or
`Result<(), JsValue>`
* Only one `start` function can be placed into a module, including its
dependencies. If more than one is specified then `wasm-bindgen` will fail when
the CLI is run. It's recommended that only applications use this attribute.
* The `start` function will not be executed when testing.
* If you're experimenting with WebAssembly threads, the `start` function is
executed *once per thread*, not once globally!
* Note that the `start` function is relatively new, so if you find any bugs with
it, please feel free to report an issue!

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# `typescript_custom_section`
When added to a `const` `&'static str`, it will append the contents of the
string to the `.d.ts` file exported by `wasm-bindgen-cli` (when the
`--typescript` flag is enabled).
```rust
#[wasm_bindgen(typescript_custom_section)]
const TS_APPEND_CONTENT: &'static str = r#"
export type Coords = { "latitude": number, "longitude": number, };
"#;
```
The primary target for this feature is for code generation. For example, you
can author a macro that allows you to export a TypeScript definition alongside
the definition of a struct or Rust type.
```rust
#[derive(MyTypescriptExport)]
struct Coords {
latitude: u32,
longitude: u32,
}
```
The proc_derive_macro "MyTypescriptExport" can export its own
`#[wasm_bindgen(typescript_custom_section)]` section, which would then be
picked up by wasm-bindgen-cli. This would be equivalent to the contents of
the TS_APPEND_CONTENT string in the first example.
This feature allows plain data objects to be typechecked in Rust and in
TypeScript by outputing a type definition generated at compile time.

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# typescript_type
The `typescript_type` allows us to use typescript declarations in `typescript_custom_section` as arguments for rust functions! For example:
```rust
#[wasm_bindgen(typescript_custom_section)]
const ITEXT_STYLE: &'static str = r#"
interface ITextStyle {
bold: boolean;
italic: boolean;
size: number;
}
"#;
#[wasm_bindgen]
extern "C" {
#[wasm_bindgen(typescript_type = "ITextStyle")]
pub type ITextStyle;
}
#[wasm_bindgen]
#[derive(Default)]
pub struct TextStyle {
pub bold: bool,
pub italic: bool,
pub size: i32,
}
#[wasm_bindgen]
impl TextStyle {
#[wasm_bindgen(constructor)]
pub fn new(_i: ITextStyle) -> TextStyle {
// parse JsValue
TextStyle::default()
}
pub fn optional_new(_i: Option<ITextStyle>) -> TextStyle {
// parse JsValue
TextStyle::default()
}
}
```
We can write our `typescript` code like:
```ts
import { ITextStyle, TextStyle } from "./my_awesome_module";
const style: TextStyle = new TextStyle({
bold: true,
italic: true,
size: 42,
});
const optional_style: TextStyle = TextStyle.optional_new();
```

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# Supported Browsers
The output of `wasm-bindgen` includes a JS file, and as a result it's good to
know what browsers that file is expected to be used in! By default the output
uses ES modules which isn't implemented in all browsers today, but when using a
bundler (like Webpack) you should be able to produce output suitable for all
browsers.
Firefox, Chrome, Safari, and Edge browsers are all supported by
`wasm-bindgen`. If you find a problem in one of these browsers please [report
it] as we'd like to fix the bug! If you find a bug in another browser we would
also like to be aware of it!
## Caveats
* **IE 11** - `wasm-bindgen` by default requires support for
`WebAssembly`, but no version of IE currently supports `WebAssembly`. You can
support IE by [compiling wasm files to JS using `wasm2js`][w2js] (you can [see
an example of doing this too](../examples/wasm2js.html)). Note
that at this time no bundler will do this by default, but we'd love to
document plugins which do this if you are aware of one!
* **Edge before 79+** - the `TextEncoder` and `TextDecoder` APIs, which
`wasm-bindgen` uses to encode/decode strings between JS and Rust, were not
available before version 79. You can polyfill this with at least one of two
strategies:
1. If using a bundler, you can likely configure the bundler to polyfill these
types by default. For example if you're using Webpack you can use the
[`ProvidePlugin` interface][wpp] like so after also adding
[`text-encoding`] to your `package.json`
```js
const webpack = require('webpack');
module.exports = {
plugins: [
new webpack.ProvidePlugin({
TextDecoder: ['text-encoding', 'TextDecoder'],
TextEncoder: ['text-encoding', 'TextEncoder']
})
]
// ... other configuration options
};
```
**Warning:** doing this implies the polyfill will always be used,
even if native APIs are available. This has a very significant
performance impact (the polyfill was measured to be 100x slower in Chromium)!
2. If you're not using a bundler you can also include support manually by
adding a `<script>` tag which defines the `TextEncoder` and `TextDecoder`
globals. [This StackOverflow question][soq] has some example usage and MDN
has a [`TextEncoder` polyfill implementation][mdntepi] to get you started
as well.
* **BigInt and `u64`** - currently the WebAssembly specification for the web
forbids the usage of 64-bit integers (Rust types `i64` and `u64`) in
exported/imported functions. When using `wasm-bindgen`, however, `u64` is
allowed! The reason for this is that it's translated to the `BigInt` type in
JS. The `BigInt` class is supported by all major browsers starting in the
following versions: Chrome 67+, Firefox 68+, Edge 79+, and Safari 14+.
If you find other incompatibilities please report them to us! We'd love to
either keep this list up-to-date or fix the underlying bugs :)
[report it]: https://github.com/rustwasm/wasm-bindgen/issues/new
[w2js]: https://github.com/WebAssembly/binaryen
[wpp]: https://webpack.js.org/plugins/provide-plugin/
[`text-encoding`]: https://www.npmjs.com/package/text-encoding
[soq]: https://stackoverflow.com/questions/40662142/polyfill-for-textdecoder/46549188#46549188
[mdntepi]: https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/TextEncoder#Polyfill

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# The `wasm-bindgen` Command Line Interface
The `wasm-bindgen` command line tool has a number of options available to it to
tweak the JavaScript that is generated. The most up-to-date set of flags can
always be listed via `wasm-bindgen --help`.
## Installation
```
cargo install -f wasm-bindgen-cli
```
## Usage
```
wasm-bindgen [options] ./target/wasm32-unknown-unknown/release/crate.wasm
```
## Options
### `--out-dir DIR`
The target directory to emit the JavaScript bindings, TypeScript definitions,
processed `.wasm` binary, etc...
### `--target`
This flag indicates what flavor of output what `wasm-bindgen` should generate.
For example it could generate code to be loaded in a bundler like Webpack, a
native web page, or Node.js. For a full list of options to pass this flag, see
the section on [deployment]
[deployment]: deployment.html
### `--no-modules-global VAR`
When `--target no-modules` is used this flag can indicate what the name of the
global to assign generated bindings to.
For more information about this see the section on [deployment]
### `--typescript`
Output a TypeScript declaration file for the generated JavaScript bindings. This
is on by default.
### `--no-typescript`
By default, a `*.d.ts` TypeScript declaration file is generated for the
generated JavaScript bindings, but this flag will disable that.
### `--omit-imports`
When the `module` attribute is used with the `wasm-bindgen` macro, the code
generator will emit corresponding `import` or `require` statements in the header
section of the generated javascript. This flag causes those import statements to
be omitted. This is necessary for some use cases, such as generating javascript
which is intended to be used with Electron (with node integration disabled),
where the imports are instead handled through a separate preload script.
### `--debug`
Generates a bit more JS and wasm in "debug mode" to help catch programmer
errors, but this output isn't intended to be shipped to production.
### `--no-demangle`
When post-processing the `.wasm` binary, do not demangle Rust symbols in the
"names" custom section.
### `--keep-debug`
When post-processing the `.wasm` binary, do not strip DWARF debug info custom
sections.
### `--browser`
When generating bundler-compatible code (see the section on [deployment]) this
indicates that the bundled code is always intended to go into a browser so a few
checks for Node.js can be elided.
### `--weak-refs`
Enables usage of the [TC39 Weak References
proposal](https://github.com/tc39/proposal-weakrefs), ensuring that all Rust
memory is eventually deallocated regardless of whether you're calling `free` or
not. This is off-by-default while we're waiting for support to percolate into
all major browsers. For more information see the [documentation about weak
references](./weak-references.md).
### `--reference-types`
Enables usage of the [WebAssembly References Types
proposal](https://github.com/webassembly/reference-types) proposal, meaning that
the WebAssembly binary will use `externref` when importing and exporting
functions that work with `JsValue`. For more information see the [documentation
about reference types](./reference-types.md).
### `--omit-default-module-path`
Don't add WebAssembly fallback imports in generated JavaScript.

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# Deploying Rust and WebAssembly
At this point in time deploying Rust and WebAssembly to the web or other
locations unfortunately isn't a trivial task to do. This page hopes to serve
as documentation for the various known options, and as always PRs are welcome
to update this if it's out of date!
The methods of deployment and integration here are primarily tied to the
`--target` flag.
| Value | Summary |
|-----------------|------------------------------------------------------------|
| [`bundler`] | Suitable for loading in bundlers like Webpack |
| [`web`] | Directly loadable in a web browser |
| [`nodejs`] | Loadable via `require` as a Node.js module |
| [`deno`] | Loadable using imports from Deno modules |
| [`no-modules`] | Like `web`, but older and doesn't use ES modules |
[`bundler`]: #bundlers
[`web`]: #without-a-bundler
[`no-modules`]: #without-a-bundler
[`nodejs`]: #nodejs
[`deno`]: #Deno
## Bundlers
**`--target bundler`**
The default output of `wasm-bindgen`, or the `bundler` target, assumes a model
where the wasm module itself is natively an ES module. This model, however, is not
natively implemented in any JS implementation at this time. As a result, to
consume the default output of `wasm-bindgen` you will need a bundler of some
form.
> **Note**: the choice of this default output was done to reflect the trends of
> the JS ecosystem. While tools other than bundlers don't support wasm files as
> native ES modules today they're all very much likely to in the future!
Currently the only known bundler known to be fully compatible with
`wasm-bindgen` is [webpack]. Most [examples] use webpack, and you can check out
the [hello world example online] to see the details of webpack configuration
necessary.
[webpack]: https://webpack.js.org/
[examples]: ../examples/index.html
[hello world example online]: ../examples/hello-world.html
## Without a Bundler
**`--target web` or `--target no-modules`**
If you're not using a bundler but you're still running code in a web browser,
`wasm-bindgen` still supports this! For this use case you'll want to use the
`--target web` flag. You can check out a [full example][nomex] in the
documentation, but the highlights of this output are:
* When compiling you'll pass `--target web` to `wasm-bindgen`
* The output can natively be included on a web page, and doesn't require any
further postprocessing. The output is included as an ES module.
* The `--target web` mode is not able to use NPM dependencies.
* You'll want to review the [browser requirements] for `wasm-bindgen` because
no polyfills will be available.
[nomex]: ../examples/without-a-bundler.html
[rfc1]: https://github.com/rustwasm/rfcs/pull/6
[rfc2]: https://github.com/rustwasm/rfcs/pull/8
[browser requirements]: browser-support.html
The CLI also supports an output mode called `--target no-modules` which is
similar to the `web` target in that it requires manual initialization of the
wasm and is intended to be included in web pages without any further
postprocessing. See the [without a bundler example][nomex] for some more
information about `--target no-modules`.
## Node.js
**`--target nodejs`**
If you're deploying WebAssembly into Node.js (perhaps as an alternative to a
native module), then you'll want to pass the `--target nodejs` flag to `wasm-bindgen`.
Like the "without a bundler" strategy, this method of deployment does not
require any further postprocessing. The generated JS shims can be `require`'d
just like any other Node module (even the `*_bg` wasm file can be `require`'d
as it has a JS shim generated as well).
Note that this method requires a version of Node.js with WebAssembly support,
which is currently Node 8 and above.
## Deno
**`--target deno`**
To deploy WebAssembly to Deno, use the `--target deno` flag.
To then import your module inside deno, use
```ts
// @deno-types="./out/crate_name.d.ts"
import { yourFunction } from "./out/crate_name.js";
```
## NPM
If you'd like to deploy compiled WebAssembly to NPM, then the tool for the job
is [`wasm-pack`]. More information on this coming soon!
[`wasm-pack`]: https://rustwasm.github.io/docs/wasm-pack/

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# Reference
This section contains reference material for using `wasm-bindgen`. It is not
intended to be read start to finish. Instead, it aims to quickly answer
questions like:
* Is type X supported as a parameter in a Rust function exported to JavaScript?
* What was that CLI flag to disable ECMAScript modules output, and instead
attach the JavaScript bindings directly to `window`?

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# Iterating over JavaScript Values
## Methods That Return `js_sys::Iterator`
Some JavaScript collections have methods for iterating over their values or
keys:
* [`Map::values`](https://rustwasm.github.io/wasm-bindgen/api/js_sys/struct.Map.html#method.values)
* [`Set::keys`](https://rustwasm.github.io/wasm-bindgen/api/js_sys/struct.Set.html#method.keys)
* etc...
These methods return
[`js_sys::Iterator`](https://rustwasm.github.io/wasm-bindgen/api/js_sys/struct.Iterator.html),
which is the Rust representation of a JavaScript object that has a `next` method
that either returns the next item in the iteration, notes that iteration has
completed, or throws an error. That is, `js_sys::Iterator` represents an object
that implements [the duck-typed JavaScript iteration
protocol](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Iteration_protocols).
`js_sys::Iterator` can be converted into a Rust iterator either by reference
(into
[`js_sys::Iter<'a>`](https://rustwasm.github.io/wasm-bindgen/api/js_sys/struct.Iter.html))
or by value (into
[`js_sys::IntoIter`](https://rustwasm.github.io/wasm-bindgen/api/js_sys/struct.IntoIter.html)). The
Rust iterator will yield items of type `Result<JsValue>`. If it yields an
`Ok(...)`, then the JS iterator protocol returned an element. If it yields an
`Err(...)`, then the JS iterator protocol threw an exception.
```rust
use wasm_bindgen::prelude::*;
#[wasm_bindgen]
pub fn count_strings_in_set(set: &js_sys::Set) -> u32 {
let mut count = 0;
// Call `keys` to get an iterator over the set's elements. Because this is
// in a `for ... in ...` loop, Rust will automatically call its
// `IntoIterator` trait implementation to convert it into a Rust iterator.
for x in set.keys() {
// We know the built-in iterator for set elements won't throw
// exceptions, so just unwrap the element. If this was an untrusted
// iterator, we might want to explicitly handle the case where it throws
// an exception instead of returning a `{ value, done }` object.
let x = x.unwrap();
// If `x` is a string, increment our count of strings in the set!
if x.is_string() {
count += 1;
}
}
count
}
```
## Iterating Over <u>Any</u> JavaScript Object that Implements the Iterator Protocol
You could manually test for whether an object implements JS's duck-typed
iterator protocol, and if so, convert it into a `js_sys::Iterator` that you can
finally iterate over. You don't need to do this by-hand, however, since we
bundled this up as [the `js_sys::try_iter`
function!](https://rustwasm.github.io/wasm-bindgen/api/js_sys/fn.try_iter.html)
For example, we can write a function that collects the numbers from any JS
iterable and returns them as an `Array`:
```rust
use wasm_bindgen::prelude::*;
#[wasm_bindgen]
pub fn collect_numbers(some_iterable: &JsValue) -> Result<js_sys::Array, JsValue> {
let nums = js_sys::Array::new();
let iterator = js_sys::try_iter(some_iterable)?.ok_or_else(|| {
"need to pass iterable JS values!"
})?;
for x in iterator {
// If the iterator's `next` method throws an error, propagate it
// up to the caller.
let x = x?;
// If `x` is a number, add it to our array of numbers!
if x.as_f64().is_some() {
nums.push(&x);
}
}
Ok(nums)
}
```

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# Working with a JS `Promise` and a Rust `Future`
Many APIs on the web work with a `Promise`, such as an `async` function in JS.
Naturally you'll probably want to interoperate with them from Rust! To do that
you can use the `wasm-bindgen-futures` crate as well as Rust `async`
functions.
The first thing you might encounter is the need for working with a `Promise`.
For this you'll want to use [`js_sys::Promise`]. Once you've got one of those
values you can convert that value to `wasm_bindgen_futures::JsFuture`. This type
implements the `std::future::Future` trait which allows naturally using it in an
`async` function. For example:
[`js_sys::Promise`]: https://docs.rs/js-sys/*/js_sys/struct.Promise.html
```rust
async fn get_from_js() -> Result<JsValue, JsValue> {
let promise = js_sys::Promise::resolve(&42.into());
let result = wasm_bindgen_futures::JsFuture::from(promise).await?;
Ok(result)
}
```
Here we can see how converting a `Promise` to Rust creates a `impl Future<Output
= Result<JsValue, JsValue>>`. This corresponds to `then` and `catch` in JS where
a successful promise becomes `Ok` and an erroneous promise becomes `Err`.
You can also import a JS async function directly with a `extern "C"` block, and
the promise will be converted to a future automatically. For now the return type
must be `JsValue` or no return at all:
```rust
#[wasm_bindgen]
extern "C" {
async fn async_func_1() -> JsValue;
async fn async_func_2();
}
```
The `async` can be combined with the `catch` attribute to manage errors from the
JS promise:
```rust
#[wasm_bindgen]
extern "C" {
#[wasm_bindgen(catch)]
async fn async_func_3() -> Result<JsValue, JsValue>;
#[wasm_bindgen(catch)]
async fn async_func_4() -> Result<(), JsValue>;
}
```
Next up you'll probably want to export a Rust function to JS that returns a
promise. To do this you can use an `async` function and `#[wasm_bindgen]`:
```rust
#[wasm_bindgen]
pub async fn foo() {
// ...
}
```
When invoked from JS the `foo` function here will return a `Promise`, so you can
import this as:
```js
import { foo } from "my-module";
async function shim() {
const result = await foo();
// ...
}
```
## Return values of `async fn`
When using an `async fn` in Rust and exporting it to JS there's some
restrictions on the return type. The return value of an exported Rust function
will eventually become `Result<JsValue, JsValue>` where `Ok` turns into a
successfully resolved promise and `Err` is equivalent to throwing an exception.
The following types are supported as return types from an `async fn`:
* `()` - turns into a successful `undefined` in JS
* `T: Into<JsValue>` - turns into a successful JS value
* `Result<(), E: Into<JsValue>>` - if `Ok(())` turns into a successful
`undefined` and otherwise turns into a failed promise with `E` converted to a
JS value
* `Result<T: Into<JsValue>, E: Into<JsValue>>` - like the previous case except
both data payloads are converted into a `JsValue`.
Note that many types implement being converted into a `JsValue`, such as all
imported types via `#[wasm_bindgen]` (aka those in `js-sys` or `web-sys`),
primitives like `u32`, and all exported `#[wasm_bindgen]` types. In general,
you should be able to write code without having too many explicit conversions,
and the macro should take care of the rest!
## Using `wasm-bindgen-futures`
The `wasm-bindgen-futures` crate bridges the gap between JavaScript `Promise`s
and Rust `Future`s. Its `JsFuture` type provides conversion from a JavaScript
`Promise` into a Rust `Future`, and its `future_to_promise` function converts a
Rust `Future` into a JavaScript `Promise` and schedules it to be driven to
completion.
Learn more:
* [`wasm_bindgen_futures` on crates.io][crate]
* [`wasm-bindgen-futures` API documentation and example usage][docs]
[crate]: https://crates.io/crates/wasm-bindgen-futures
[docs]: https://rustwasm.github.io/wasm-bindgen/api/wasm_bindgen_futures/
## Compatibility with versions of `Future`
The current crate on crates.io, `wasm-bindgen-futures 0.4.*`, supports
`std::future::Future` and `async`/`await` in Rust. This typically requires Rust
1.39.0+ (as of this writing on 2019-09-05 it's the nightly channel of Rust).
If you're using the `Future` trait from the `futures` `0.1.*` crate then you'll
want to use the `0.3.*` track of `wasm-bindgen-futures` on crates.io.

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# JS Snippets
Often when developing a crate you want to run on the web you'll want to include
some JS code here and there. While [`js-sys`](https://docs.rs/js-sys) and
[`web-sys`](https://docs.rs/web-sys) cover many needs they don't cover
everything, so `wasm-bindgen` supports the ability to write JS code next to your
Rust code and have it included in the final output artifact.
To include a local JS file, you'll use the `#[wasm_bindgen(module)]` macro:
```rust
#[wasm_bindgen(module = "/js/foo.js")]
extern "C" {
fn add(a: u32, b: u32) -> u32;
}
```
This declaration indicates that all the functions contained in the `extern`
block are imported from the file `/js/foo.js`, where the root is relative to the
crate root (where `Cargo.toml` is located).
The `/js/foo.js` file will make its way to the final output when `wasm-bindgen`
executes, so you can use the `module` annotation in a library without having to
worry users of your library!
The JS file itself must be written with ES module syntax:
```js
export function add(a, b) {
return a + b;
}
```
A full design of this feature can be found in [RFC 6] as well if you're
interested!
[RFC 6]: https://github.com/rustwasm/rfcs/pull/6
### Using `inline_js`
In addition to `module = "..."` if you're a macro author you also have the
ability to use the `inline_js` attribute:
```rust
#[wasm_bindgen(inline_js = "export function add(a, b) { return a + b; }")]
extern "C" {
fn add(a: u32, b: u32) -> u32;
}
```
Using `inline_js` indicates that the JS module is specified inline in the
attribute itself, and no files are loaded from the filesystem. They have the
same limitations and caveats as when using `module`, but can sometimes be easier
to generate for macros themselves. It's not recommended for hand-written code to
make use of `inline_js` but instead to leverage `module` where possible.
### Caveats
While quite useful local JS snippets currently suffer from a few caveats which
are important to be aware of. Many of these are temporary though!
* Currently `import` statements are not supported in the JS file. This is a
restriction we may lift in the future once we settle on a good way to support
this. For now, though, js snippets must be standalone modules and can't import
from anything else.
* Only `--target web` and the default bundler output mode are supported. To
support `--target nodejs` we'd need to translate ES module syntax to CommonJS
(this is
planned to be done, just hasn't been done yet). Additionally to support
`--target no-modules` we'd have to similarly translate from ES modules to
something else.
* Paths in `module = "..."` must currently start with `/`, or be rooted at the
crate root. It is intended to eventually support relative paths like `./` and
`../`, but it's currently believed that this requires more support in
the Rust `proc_macro` crate.
As above, more detail about caveats can be found in [RFC 6].

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# Optimizing for Size with `wasm-bindgen`
The Rust and WebAssembly Working Group's [Game of Life tutorial][gol] has an
excellent section on [shrinking wasm code size][size], but there's a few
`wasm-bindgen`-specific items to mention as well!
First and foremost, `wasm-bindgen` is designed to be lightweight and a "pay only
for what you use" mentality. If you suspect that `wasm-bindgen` is bloating your
program that is a bug and we'd like to know about it! Please feel free to [file
an issue][issue], even if it's a question!
### What to profile
With `wasm-bindgen` there's a few different files to be measuring the size of.
The first of which is the output of the compiler itself, typically at
`target/wasm32-unknown-unknown/release/foo.wasm`. **This file is not optimized
for size and you should not measure it.** The output of the compiler when
linking with `wasm-bindgen` is by design larger than it needs to be, the
`wasm-bindgen` CLI tool will automatically strip all unneeded functionality out
of the binary.
This leaves us with two primary generated files to measure the size of:
* **Generated wasm** - after running the `wasm-bindgen` CLI tool you'll get a
file in `--out-dir` that looks like `foo_bg.wasm`. This file is the final
fully-finished artifact from `wasm-bindgen`, and it reflects the size of the
app you'll be publishing. All the optimizations [mentioned in the code size
tutorial][size] will help reduce the size of this binary, so feel free to go
crazy!
* **Generated JS** - the other file after running `wasm-bindgen` is a `foo.js`
file which is what's actually imported by other JS code. This file is already
generated to be as small as possible (not including unneeded functionality).
The JS, however, is not uglified or minified, but rather still human readable
and debuggable. It's expected that you'll run an uglifier or bundler of the JS
output to minimize it further in your application. If you spot a way we could
reduce the output JS size further (or make it more amenable to bundler
minification), please let us know!
### Example
As an example, the `wasm-bindgen` repository [contains an example][example]
about generating small wasm binaries and shows off how to generate a small wasm
file for adding two numbers.
[gol]: https://rustwasm.github.io/book/game-of-life/introduction.html
[size]: https://rustwasm.github.io/book/game-of-life/code-size.html
[issue]: https://github.com/rustwasm/wasm-bindgen/issues/new
[example]: https://rustwasm.github.io/docs/wasm-bindgen/examples/add.html

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# Passing Rust Closures to Imported JavaScript Functions
The `#[wasm_bindgen]` attribute supports Rust closures being passed to
JavaScript in two variants:
1. Stack-lifetime closures that should not be invoked by JavaScript again after
the imported JavaScript function that the closure was passed to returns.
2. Heap-allocated closures that can be invoked any number of times, but must be
explicitly deallocated when finished.
## Stack-Lifetime Closures
Closures with a stack lifetime are passed to JavaScript as either `&dyn Fn` or `&mut
dyn FnMut` trait objects:
```rust
// Import JS functions that take closures
#[wasm_bindgen]
extern "C" {
fn takes_immutable_closure(f: &dyn Fn());
fn takes_mutable_closure(f: &mut dyn FnMut());
}
// Usage
takes_immutable_closure(&|| {
// ...
});
let mut times_called = 0;
takes_mutable_closure(&mut || {
times_called += 1;
});
```
**Once these imported functions return, the closures that were given to them
will become invalidated, and any future attempts to call those closures from
JavaScript will raise an exception.**
Closures also support arguments and return values like exports do, for example:
```rust
#[wasm_bindgen]
extern "C" {
fn takes_closure_that_takes_int_and_returns_string(x: &dyn Fn(u32) -> String);
}
takes_closure_that_takes_int_and_returns_string(&|x: u32| -> String {
format!("x is {}", x)
});
```
## Heap-Allocated Closures
Sometimes the discipline of stack-lifetime closures is not desired. For example,
you'd like to schedule a closure to be run on the next turn of the event loop in
JavaScript through `setTimeout`. For this, you want the imported function to
return but the JavaScript closure still needs to be valid!
For this scenario, you need the `Closure` type, which is defined in the
`wasm_bindgen` crate, exported in `wasm_bindgen::prelude`, and represents a
"long lived" closure.
The `Closure` type is currently behind a feature which needs to be enabled:
```toml
[dependencies]
wasm-bindgen = {version = "^0.2", features = ["nightly"]}
```
The validity of the JavaScript closure is tied to the lifetime of the `Closure`
in Rust. **Once a `Closure` is dropped, it will deallocate its internal memory
and invalidate the corresponding JavaScript function so that any further
attempts to invoke it raise an exception.**
Like stack closures a `Closure` supports both `Fn` and `FnMut` closures, as well
as arguments and returns.
```rust
#[wasm_bindgen]
extern "C" {
fn setInterval(closure: &Closure<dyn FnMut()>, millis: u32) -> f64;
fn cancelInterval(token: f64);
#[wasm_bindgen(js_namespace = console)]
fn log(s: &str);
}
#[wasm_bindgen]
pub struct Interval {
closure: Closure<dyn FnMut()>,
token: f64,
}
impl Interval {
pub fn new<F: 'static>(millis: u32, f: F) -> Interval
where
F: FnMut()
{
// Construct a new closure.
let closure = Closure::new(f);
// Pass the closure to JS, to run every n milliseconds.
let token = setInterval(&closure, millis);
Interval { closure, token }
}
}
// When the Interval is destroyed, cancel its `setInterval` timer.
impl Drop for Interval {
fn drop(&mut self) {
cancelInterval(self.token);
}
}
// Keep logging "hello" every second until the resulting `Interval` is dropped.
#[wasm_bindgen]
pub fn hello() -> Interval {
Interval::new(1_000, || log("hello"))
}
```

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# Receiving JavaScript Closures in Exported Rust Functions
You can use the `js-sys` crate to access JavaScript's `Function` type, and
invoke that function via `Function.prototype.apply` and
`Function.prototype.call`.
For example, we can wrap a `Vec<u32>` in a new type, export it to JavaScript,
and invoke a JavaScript closure on each member of the `Vec`:
```rust
use wasm_bindgen::prelude::*;
#[wasm_bindgen]
pub struct VecU32 {
xs: Vec<u32>,
}
#[wasm_bindgen]
impl VecU32 {
pub fn each(&self, f: &js_sys::Function) {
let this = JsValue::null();
for &x in &self.xs {
let x = JsValue::from(x);
let _ = f.call1(&this, &x);
}
}
}
```
Since Rust has no function overloading, the `call#` method also requires a
number representing the amount of arguments passed to the JavaScript closure.

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# Support for Reference Types
WebAssembly recently has gained support for a new value type called `externref`.
Proposed in the [WebAssembly reference types
repo](https://github.com/webassembly/reference-types) this feature of
WebAssembly is hoped to enable more efficient communication between the host
(JS) and the wasm module. This feature removes the need for much of the JS glue
generated by `wasm-bindgen` because it can natively call APIs with JS values.
For example, this Rust function:
```rust
#[wasm_bindgen]
pub fn takes_js_value(a: &JsValue) {
// ...
}
```
generates this JS glue *without* reference types support:
```js
const heap = new Array(32).fill(undefined);
heap.push(undefined, null, true, false);
let stack_pointer = 32;
function addBorrowedObject(obj) {
if (stack_pointer == 1) throw new Error('out of js stack');
heap[--stack_pointer] = obj;
return stack_pointer;
}
export function takes_js_value(a) {
try {
wasm.takes_js_value(addBorrowedObject(a));
} finally {
heap[stack_pointer++] = undefined;
}
}
```
We can see here how under the hood the JS is managing a table of JS values which
are passed to the wasm binary, so wasm actually only works in indices. If we
pass the `--reference-types` flag to the CLI, however, the generated JS looks like:
```js
export function takes_js_value(a) {
wasm.takes_js_value(a);
}
```
And that's it! The WebAssembly binary takes the JS value directly and manages it
internally.
Currently this feature is supported in Firefox 79+ and Chrome. Support in other
browsers is likely coming soon! In Node.js this feature is behind the
`--experimental-wasm-anyref` flag, although the support does not currently align
with the upstream specification as of 14.6.0.

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# Supported Rust Targets
> **Note**: This section is about Rust target triples, not targets like node/web
> workers/browsers. More information on that coming soon!
The `wasm-bindgen` project is designed to target the `wasm32-unknown-unknown`
target in Rust. This target is a "bare bones" target for Rust which emits
WebAssembly as output. The standard library is largely inert as modules like
`std::fs` and `std::net` will simply return errors.
## Non-wasm targets
Note that `wasm-bindgen` also aims to compile on all targets. This means that it
should be safe, if you like, to use `#[wasm_bindgen]` even when compiling for
Windows (for example). For example:
```rust
#[wasm_bindgen]
pub fn add(a: u32, b: u32) -> u32 {
a + b
}
#[cfg(not(target_arch = "wasm32"))]
fn main() {
println!("1 + 2 = {}", add(1, 2));
}
```
This program will compile and work on all platforms, not just
`wasm32-unknown-unknown`. Note that imported functions with `#[wasm_bindgen]`
will unconditionally panic on non-wasm targets. For example:
```rust
#[wasm_bindgen]
extern "C" {
#[wasm_bindgen(js_namespace = console)]
fn log(s: &str);
}
fn main() {
log("hello!");
}
```
This program will unconditionally panic on all platforms other than
`wasm32-unknown-unknown`.
For better compile times, however, you likely want to only use `#[wasm_bindgen]`
on the `wasm32-unknown-unknown` target. You can have a target-specific
dependency like so:
```toml
[target.'cfg(target_arch = "wasm32")'.dependencies]
wasm-bindgen = "0.2"
```
And in your code you can use:
```rust
#[cfg(target_arch = "wasm32")]
#[wasm_bindgen]
pub fn only_on_the_wasm_target() {
// ...
}
```
## Other Web Targets
The `wasm-bindgen` target does not support the `wasm32-unknown-emscripten` nor
the `asmjs-unknown-emscripten` targets. There are currently no plans to support
these targets either. All annotations work like other platforms on the targets,
retaining exported functions and causing all imports to panic.

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# Supported Rust Types and their JavaScript Representations
This section provides an overview of all the types that `wasm-bindgen` can send
and receive across the WebAssembly ABI boundary, and how they translate into
JavaScript.

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